CHAPTER 2- ANCIENT EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA:
2A- GEOGRAPHY OF MESOPOTAMIA
Mesopotamia refers to the land between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, both of which flow down from the Taurus Mountains. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert in the north which gives way to a 5,800 sq mile region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south, the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf.
In ancient times, the annual flooding of the rivers was unpredictable. This level of unpredictability could cause flooding that could destroy crops or even cause a drought that could dry the crops out. By 6,000 BCE, irrigation canals brought water from rivers to the fields where workers unclogged canals and built dams to hold back flood water.
The irrigation is aided by the melting snow from the high peaks of the northern Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian Highlands. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to organize a sufficient labor force for the construction and maintenance of the canals. Since the earliest periods, this has assisted in the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of government.
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The arid climate means that there are not large areas of wooded forests or jungle. This means that wooded structures could not be constructed. In place of wood, buildings were made of clay and rock. Long-distance trade from outlying areas has helped to provide resources that were not available.
Agriculture throughout the region had been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism. This is the process in which tent-dwelling nomads herd sheep and goats from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. In the marshlands to the south of the area, a complex water-borne fishing culture had existed since prehistoric times, and has also added to the cultural mix.
Mesopotamia has also been called the Fertile Crescent and the "cradle of civilization." Through clearing and modification of vegetation, it is here where settled farming first emerged helping to create urban centers and cities. Early human civilizations such as Sumer in Mesopotamia were able to flourish as a result. Technological advances in the Mesopotamia region included the development of agriculture and the use of irrigation, writing, the wheel, and glass.
2B- CIVILIZATION IN SUMERIAN CITY-STATES
As we learn about World History, it is fascinating to imagine how it all began. Historians have been asking this question for thousands of years. Through their work we have been introduced to ancient civilizations and have pieced together what life possibly looked like during their glory days.
Historians believe that the first human civilization began with The Sumerians. Through their development, we can see very interesting aspects of their life that have spanned the test of time and are even present in today’s civilizations. These include the establishment of advanced cities, complex institutions, specialized workers, advanced technology and record keeping.
In about 5,000 BCE, nomads living in the Mesopotamia region began to settle in the fertile land near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. They formed small villages which grew into larger towns and cities, and eventually developed into the civilization known as Sumer. Some advanced cities of Sumer had over 80,000 people. The Sumerian cities were organized around a ziggurat, or temple, and included streets and housing.
Within these cities, Sumerians created complex institutions such as government. The Sumerian government was a form of theocracy meaning that a deity, or god, was the supreme ruler and kings and priests were given divine guidance to rule their lands. The Sumerians had over 3,000 gods. Each city had its own government and laws. Kings ruled these city-states in the name of the gods they worshipped until eventually one king created an empire and Sumer became one of the first monarchies in the world.
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Sumerian society shows an advanced use of a specialized workforce. Once they used irrigation to help create a food surplus, Sumerians began to create rulers, merchants, artists, and government officials. The Sumerians had advanced achievements in science and art as well. They developed the first writing system known as cuneiform. Scribes recorded the names of rulers, laws, and history into clay tablets. One of the first epics, The Epic of Gilgamesh, was written in cuneiform.
The Sumerians showed use of advanced technology such as canals for irrigation of crops, sun dried bricks for building, the first wheeled vehicles, and the use of bronze to create stronger weapons and tools. They even invented mathematical equations and tables and, studied astronomy by mapping out the movement of the moon and stars.
2C- EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN MESOPOTAMIA
When we look around the world today we can see many advanced civilizations. Technology, government, art, and infrastructure show that people have developed high achievements in their cities, states, and nations. It is fascinating that many elements of advanced civilization were also found in places like ancient Mesopotamia as early as 5,000 BCE.
Mesopotamia is located in the Middle East between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. It is called the “Cradle of Civilization” because many of the world’s oldest civilizations began in this area. The first civilization to emerge was Sumer. Around 2,400 BCE, we begin to see the development of other civilizations that adopted and built upon aspects of Sumerian culture.
From around 2300-2100 BCE, the Akkadians came to power under Sargon the Great in the southern area of the Fertile Crescent. Sargon was the first to conquer and unite many Sumerian city-states. In fact, after conquering many of them, the Akkadians developed the first known post office that could deliver messages across the empire.
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When the Akkadian Empire fell, the Babylonians and Assyrians came to power. The Babylonians were also located in the southern area of Mesopotamia and centered in their capital Babylon. They were a major trading empire that rose to power during the reign of Hammurabi.
Hammurabi conquered surrounding territory and established a new set of laws, known as the Code of Hammurabi, that applied to the entire empire. At its peak, Babylon became the largest city in the world at that time with over 200,000 people.
The Assyrians lived in the northern region of Mesopotamia near the Tigris River. They eventually conquered all of Mesopotamia and expanded their empire to include Egypt, Babylon, Israel, and Cyprus. They established a great library at Nineveh which held clay tablets that included ancient stories of Mesopotamia. Over 30,000 tablets have been recovered and are housed at the British Museum in London. The Assyrians rose and fell several times throughout their existence. After their second rise, freeing themselves from Babylonian control, they ruled in 774 BCE for a century and a half.
The Phoenicians were an independent city-state along the Mediterranean who were great sea-farming traders. They founded many cities and colonies around the Mediterranean Sea. They built amazing ships and traded many different types of goods such as metals, cloth, jewelry and crafts. They even developed a highly prized and valuable purple dye that came from the murex shellfish.
The Persian Empire began its rise to power around 550 BCE. They would go on to become one of the largest empires in the Middle East. Under Cyrus the Great, Darius, and Xerxes, they waged war against other empires and brought them into the Persian realm. A difference between the Persians and other conquerors was that they allowed their subjects to keep their customs and religions but required them to pay taxes and obey Persian laws.
2D- HAMMURABI'S CODE OF LAWS
Much of our society is organized and run by a standard of codes, ethics, morals, and laws. Interestingly, as ancient civilizations continued to develop, they too relied on laws and codes to keep order in the empire. The Code of Hammurabi was the first set of laws that were actually written down, making it the first written legal document.
Hammurabi ruled Babylon from 1,792-1,750 BCE and created the codes to protect its citizens. Before the codes, each case was judged separately and in a chaotic way. The codes regulated trade, business, and social relationships in Babylon. It also teaches us about Mesopotamian society such as their class divisions and political economic factors.
Hammurabi’s code was a very modern concept for this time and has influenced all the populations since then. Society today would not be the same if it were not for Hammurabi establishing this set of laws. His code demonstrates the start of an organized society and civilized group of people.
Hammurabi’s Code was written on clay tablets that contained a collection of 282 laws most famously paraphrased by the expression, “An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”. Most of the laws related to property rights of landowners, merchants, builders, and slave masters. Some of the laws were brutal and the death penalty was mentioned at least 30 times. Hammurabi’s Code is thought to have established the principle of “innocent-until-proven-guilty."
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There were three main classes in Babylonian society (upper, middle, and lower) and the code punished the guilty party based on their class. Although, there was justice and people got punished for crimes that they committed, punishments were more severe for those of the lower class than the higher class.
Hammurabi’s Code focused more on creating peace than actually on giving people the equality they deserved. Hammurabi’s code expressed the idea that social order was more important than individual rights. For example, a family’s wealth should be administered by the husband/father. Women, especially widows and divorcees, needed society’s help and the codes sought to provide protection for them. Therefore, there was some equality, but not as much as there should have been.
2E- EARLY WRITING SYSTEMS
It is fascinating to think that the words you are reading right now contain characters with ancient origins. Humans had been speaking for a couple hundred thousand years before they had the inspiration to create a writing system.
When ancient Mesopotamians began settling on farms and in surrounding cities, life became more complicated. With the invention of irrigation, agriculture required more expertise. Detailed record keeping was also necessary to accurately record the surplus of food. This led directly to the invention of writing. Historians have discovered that the oldest writing systems are cuneiform, hieroglyphics, and the alphabet.
Cuneiform is the first known form of writing. Cuneiform is considered the most significant contribution of the Sumerians because of how important writing is to civilization. The origin of this form of writing is dated at approximately 3,300 BCE. Archaeologists have found over 700 symbols with different meanings that varied with each city-state and changed over time. Cuneiform was created by using a stylus to write symbols on a clay tablet that represented sounds. This allowed the civilization to document its history, laws, and people.
Egyptian hieroglyphs were a formal writing system used by ancient Egyptians around 3,000 BCE that combined pictographic and alphabetic elements. Hieroglyphs have thousands of symbols that can mean sounds (phonogram) or entire words (ideogram). It took advanced skill to write hieroglyphs, and scribes who studied it often began at a young age. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature on papyrus and wood. Hieroglyphs were significant because they allowed the Egyptians to communicate, conduct trade, and record history. The preservation of these hieroglyphs are how historians were able learn so much about ancient Egyptian civilization.
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After thousands of years cuneiform was replaced with widespread usage of the Phoenician alphabet. It’s earliest known use is 1,000 BCE. The Phoenician writing system differed from cuneiform pictographic writing in that contained 22 letters that represented sounds as compared to over 700 varying symbols. This writing system was spread by Phoenician traders and became the basis for modern script. Many alphabetic languages trace their roots back to the Phoenician alphabet.
2F- COMPARING POLYTHEISM & MONOTHEISM
Religion was a major part of life in all early civilizations. However, not all religions were the same. Religions mostly differed between polytheism and monotheism. Polytheism is the belief in more than one god. Monotheism differs from polytheism in that it is the belief in a single god or divine being. Groups in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt practiced some form of polytheism or monotheism.
Civilizations such as the Sumerians and Ancient Egyptians practiced polytheism. In the Sumerian civilization, each city-state had their own god. Sumerian religion is rooted in worshiping elements of nature.
Later, Sumerian gods would come to maintain human forms and traits. Sumerians believed that their role was to serve the gods. Religious ceremonies were conducted at the temple in the center of the city known as a ziggurat.
In Ancient Egypt religion was very important. A pharaoh was the divine leader and considered to be both man and a god.
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They believed in many gods and sometimes gods would take the form of animals. Ra was the sun god and king of all the gods. Egyptians believed in life after death. They believed the body was needed in the afterlife, and they would preserve the body to be taken along with the spirit to the afterlife. They used a process called mummification to preserve bodies for the journey into the afterworld.
There are several ancient civilizations that were monotheistic. Zoroastrianism was the main monotheistic religion in Persia. They believed in one god called Ahura Mazda. Their holy book was known as the Avesta. Zoroastrianism also holds the belief in the duality of good and evil. Zoroastrianism is believed to have influenced major religions throughout history such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Judaism began with the Hebrews and is also an example of a monotheistic religion. Their sacred text is the Torah. Judaism believes in one god who speaks through prophets.
Abraham is the first prophet and founder of Judaism. Another major prophet in Judaism was Moses. He is believed to have led the Hebrews out of slavery in Egypt, and wander the desert for 40 years in search of the Promised Land.
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Polytheism and Monotheism do have similarities, in that they both have the belief in god(s) or divine being(s). Both belief systems are considered forms of theism. This means that they believe in a god(s) that interact and have a personal relationship with their believers, as opposed to deism in which the belief is that the creator does not interact with the universe.
2G- GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT EGYPT
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual flooding of the Nile River. At the same time each year, the Nile flooded for about six months. As the river receded, it deposited a rich, brown layer of silt that was suitable for growing wheat, beans, barley, and even cotton.
This predictable flooding and fertilization of the soil allowed farmers to dig short canals leading to their fields near the Nile, thus providing fresh water for year-round irrigation. Planting immediately after a flood yielded harvests before the next year's flood. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits.
The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks the silt for growing crops. After the flood waters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer (a type of wheat) and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make bread. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Fruits and vegetables were grown in garden plots close to habitations on higher ground and had to be watered by hand.
Beyond the fertile lands that lie on each side of the Nile River are immense deserts. To the west is the Sahara Desert, the largest desert in the world. To the east of the Nile River is the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea. These deserts provided a great natural barrier and protection against invaders.
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2H- TIMELINE OF EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA
Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt are the among the oldest civilizations in human history. Ancient Egyptian civilization began in Africa along the Nile River and lasted over 3,000 years from 3150 BCE to 30 BCE. Ancient Mesopotamia began between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers near modern day Iraq.
Ancient Egypt began with two separate kingdoms: the Upper and Lower Kingdom. Each kingdom’s king had a distinct crown. The crown of Upper Egypt was white and shaped like a cone. The crown of Lower Egypt was red, flat, and had a point in the back with a spiral in the front.
In 2950 BCE, Menes, the first Pharaoh, united the Upper and Lower Kingdoms. This was the beginning of the first dynasties of Ancient Egypt, when being Pharaoh was passed from one family member to another. It was also during this period in which the early writing system of hieroglyphics was created.
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During the rise of Ancient Egypt in Africa, the earliest Mesopotamian civilization was also developing in Sumer. Although these civilizations did not make contact early on, they shared similar qualities. One was the importance of religion. Both civilizations were polytheistic and worshipped multiple gods. Both civilizations also built amazing structures to honor their gods.
Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for their deceased Pharaohs. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the largest of all the pyramids and was built as a tomb for the pharaoh Khufu around 2580 BCE. It took 20 years and 20,000 workers to complete.
Sumerians built temples called ziggurats where they performed religious rituals and ceremonies. Ziggurats were pyramid shaped buildings with a square base and steps leading up to several levels.
The Akkadians became the first empire in Mesopotamia beginning around 2300 BCE. With the use of his giant army, Sargon the Great was able to defeat many city-states and unite them into one empire. He kept his empire operating smoothly with the use of Akkadian bureaucrats positioned in every conquered city.
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Eventually the Akkadian Empire fell and new empires arose in Mesopotamia. In 1792 BCE, the Babylonian Empire became the largest and most powerful empire in Mesopotamia. It’s ruler, King Hammurabi conquered all of the city-states of Mesopotamia making Babylon the capital of the empire.
When King Hammurabi died, he left a great legacy behind him. His set of laws, known as the Code of Hammurabi, inspired other world leaders on how to govern their nation.
Dynasties also rose and fell throughout Ancient Egyptian history. In around 1720 BCE, due to splitting the empire, Northern Egypt (Lower Kingdom) was invaded and taken over by the Hyksos. The Hyksos ruled until 1550 BCE. During the “wars of liberation” from 1570-1550 BCE, kings Kamos and Ahmose I from Southern Egypt (Upper Kingdom) joined forces with the Nubians and fought together to defeat the Hyksos and expel them from Egypt.
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Although pharaohs were mostly men, there were several female pharaohs in Ancient Egypt as well. The most powerful woman that held the title of pharaoh was Hatshepsut, who ruled from around 1479- 1458 BCE. Hatshepsut accomplished many achievements during her reign. She was a powerful, intelligent, and gifted leader. She helped Egypt gain wealth by setting up trade with foreign countries. Many buildings and temples were also constructed during her reign in Egypt; however, her reign is mostly characterized by peace and prosperity.
One of the greatest pharaohs in Ancient Egypt was Ramses II (or Ramses the Great). He reigned from 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE. Ramses II was a military hero who defended Egypt against many attacks and expanded the Egyptian empire. He also built many great buildings and temples. He is known for the enormous statues of himself throughout Egypt. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings and had many traps created inside of the tombs to deter grave robbers.
In Mesopotamia, another empire was reaching its peak. During 1500 BCE, the empire of Phoenicia reached its height through a long history of sea trading and manufacturing. They became the most skillful shipbuilders and navigators of their time. They also made glass items, dyes, jewelry, and other highly valued and prized goods.
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In 1050 BCE, Egypt once again found itself falling into division as the New Kingdom ended. Many kingdoms fought for power and control over Egypt during this time. In the mid-700s BCE, the Kingdom of Kush became the dominant power in Upper Egypt. The Kush was a civilization centered in the North African region of Nubia.
A while later in Mesopotamia, the Babylonian Empire was reaching its peak. In 604 BCE, Chaldean ruler Nebuchadnezzar II became king of Babylon. During his 43-year rule, he rebuilt the city of Babylon by restoring temples and building amazing structures like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, his palace, and refortified the walls surrounding the city. Nebuchadnezzar II was a powerful conqueror and expanded the Babylonian Empire conquering cities such as Jerusalem.
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In 539 BCE, the Babylonian Empire came to an end when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia and expanded the Persian Empire. He led his army in a surprise attack during the Babylonians' national feast. Since the moats along the walls of Babylon were filled with water, Cyrus and his army rerouted the water making it hip level and easy for the army to walk through. Cyrus and his men then marched into the city and took control. The Persians were tolerant rulers who allowed conquered peoples to keep their own languages, religions and laws.
2I- GOVERNMENT AND PHARAOHS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
Pharaohs were the political and religious leaders of Ancient Egypt. They ruled through dynasties, where power was transferred from one family member to another, usually the sons or declared heirs of the preceding Pharaoh. There were about 332 pharaohs that we know of today.
The main responsibility of the pharaoh was to maintain peace and harmony in Egypt. Warfare was an essential aspect of the rule of pharaoh, especially when it was seen as necessary for the restoration of balance and harmony in the land.
Additionally, the pharaoh had a sacred duty to defend the border of the land, but also to attack neighboring countries for natural resources if it was thought to be in the best interest of Egypt.
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The funds the government needed for massive projects such as the construction of pyramids came from trade and official taxes. The pharaoh was the leader of the Ancient Egyptian Government and their word was the law of the land.
Pharaohs were famous for building amazing structures, expanding the borders of Egypt, and making Egypt a powerful empire during their reign.
A famous pharaoh from the “Old Kingdom” of Egypt, Khufu, reigned from 2589-2566 BCE.
During his rule he built both the largest and tallest pyramids in Egypt. His pyramid, the Great Pyramid of Giza, was constructed over a 27 year period and still stands today. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and the only one to remain intact.
“New Kingdom” pharaohs included Amenhotep I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose, Akhenaten, and Ramses II.
Amenhotep I ruled Egypt from 1526-1506 BCE. During his reign he led an expedition into Nubia, Canaan, Mesopotamia, and Kush.
Important technology like the water clock was invented during his reign. He was also the first pharaoh to separate his tomb from his mortuary temple.
In 1478-1458 BCE Queen Hatshepsut became Pharaoh and was the longest reigning female pharaoh in Egypt.
She brought peace and prosperity to Egypt and is considered to be one of the most successful pharaohs.
During the reign of Hatshepsut's predecessor, Thutmose III, Egypt's borders were pushed farther than they had ever been before. Thutmose III was Hatshepsut's nephew and reigned from 1479 to 1425 BCE. He led at least 17 campaigns, conquering territory from Syria to Upper Nubia and constructed many temples along the way.
She brought peace and prosperity to Egypt and is considered to be one of the most successful pharaohs.
During the reign of Hatshepsut's predecessor, Thutmose III, Egypt's borders were pushed farther than they had ever been before. Thutmose III was Hatshepsut's nephew and reigned from 1479 to 1425 BCE. He led at least 17 campaigns, conquering territory from Syria to Upper Nubia and constructed many temples along the way.
Pharaoh Akhenaten ruled from 1353-1336 BCE and is famous for changing the traditional religion from the worship of many gods to the worships of a single god named Aten. However, this shift was reversed after his death and the worship of many traditional gods returned.
Ramesses II “The Great” reigned from 1279-1213 BCE and was the third ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty.
At the start of his reign, Ramesses focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. He established a new capital city at Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta.
He then led military campaigns against the Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, and Nubians. He also expanded the Egyptian empire and secured its borders against attackers.
At the start of his reign, Ramesses focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. He established a new capital city at Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta.
He then led military campaigns against the Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, and Nubians. He also expanded the Egyptian empire and secured its borders against attackers.
The 20th Dynasty was the last dynasty of pharaohs, and it saw a series of bickering heirs fighting for the throne. Egypt also suffered droughts, below-normal flooding of the Nile, famine, and civil unrest during this period.
The power of the last pharaoh of the dynasty, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that temple priests became de facto rulers of Upper Egypt. Egypt then fell into what is known as the Third Intermediate Period.
2J- THE DECLINE OF ANCIENT EGYPT
The Ancient Egyptian Empire was one of the oldest and longest ruling empires in history, spanning over 3,000 years. During that time the empire rose and fell as power shifted from one dynasty to the next, and the occasional invasion from neighboring empires. However, history shows that even the mightiest empires can fall and after 1,100 BC, Egypt fell into decline. There were several reasons for this including a loss of military power, lack of natural resources, and political conflicts.
The reigns of the last great pharaohs, Ramses II and Ramses III (1,189 BC to 1,077 BCE, are characterized by their strength and ability to defend Egypt against invaders. However, it took significant manpower and resources to ward off these continual attacks and these defenses left the economy’s empire struggling.
Egypt experienced a civil war and remained split between two regions. This left Egypt vulnerable to further invasions and control from the Assyrians in 671 BCE, the Persians in 525 BCE and finally the Greeks in 332 BCE.
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At the end of Egypt’s empire, the climate became erratic and unstable. The Egyptians relied on the water from the Nile floods to help their crops grow, but the Egyptian climate experienced roughly a hundred of years of dry spells and water became scarce.
There were also periods of unusually cold weather that further stressed the crops and led to a drastic decrease in harvests. Crops were also destroyed by sporadic and unpredictable flooding of the Nile. With little to no food or surplus for long periods of time, hunger and famine spread.
Economic and political unrest also led to the weakening of the Ancient Egyptian empire. There were huge inequalities in the distribution of wealth among the elites and the rest of the population. Many people began to distrust the government and religious authority. The continuous wars created huge expenses and weakened the economic power of the Pharaoh.
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Christianity began to spread through Egypt and brought the adoption of the alphabet replacing hieroglyphics and creating major changes in Egyptian culture. Many ancient practices such as mummification ended.