CHAPTER 3: ANCENT CHINA AND THE INDUS VALLEY
3A- GEOGRAPHY OF THE ANCIENT INDUS RIVER VALLEY
Like the other early civilizations, the Harappan Civilization in Ancient India developed along a river valley. The Indus River Valley is located in a small area of land in what is now Pakistan and India. The river provided fertile soil for growing crops of rice, wheat, various fruits and vegetables, and cotton. In addition, the Indus provided grazing lands for herd animals and a steady supply of fresh water. The Indus Valley contained many natural resources that became an important part of Harappan civilization. These resources included timber for building, along with gold, silver, and other precious stones.
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Flood-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The Indus Valley Civilization is well known for its two largest cities Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Each city likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals and became centers of trade. Excavation of both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro shows that each city had advanced city planning, including carefully organized houses, a sewer system, major streets, and warehouses used for storing food and merchandise. Each city also built large walls to help protect them from floods and invaders
One of the major environmental challenges for the Harappan Civilization were monsoons. Each year from October to February, winter monsoons blow westward from the northeast carrying dry air. From mid-June through October, summer monsoons blow eastward from the southwest carrying moisture from the ocean in great rain clouds and often cause flooding. Monsoon patterns were unpredictable. Too little rain caused food shortages, while too much rain caused floods. Archaeologists believe this might have been one of the causes for the end of the Harrapan Civilization.
3B- HARAPPAN CULTURE
The Harappan Civilization in the Indus Valley is known as one of the oldest and largest ancient civilizations in history. Archaeologists date the Harappan Civilization from 3300 BC to 2750 BC. Discovery and excavation of the Harappan cities show amazingly well built structures, planned cities, technology, and trade that make historians and archeologists believe this was one of the most advanced civilizations of its time.
The Harappans conducted a thriving trade with people in the region, which was significant to their economy. Much of their success in trade was due to their advancement in transportation technology. They used wheeled carts and boats to transport goods. The Indus River provided an excellent means of transportation for trade goods. Gold and silver came from the north in Afghanistan. Semi-precious stones that came from Asia and the Deccan plateau were crafted into jewelry.
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Brightly colored cotton cloth was a desirable trade item since few people knew how to grow cotton. The Harappan Civilization had extensive trade networks with civilizations in Mesopotamia. Goods moved from Persia to the Caspian Sea over land and long distance sea routes.
Like other cultures, the rulers of the Harappan Civilization are believed to have close ties to religion. There is evidence that Harappans were polytheistic and worshiped the Mother Goddess and Father God among other male and female deities. They had faith and performed ceremonial rituals. Priests likely prayed for good harvests and safety from floods. However, no sight of a temple has ever been found. Historians and archaeologists believe that the Harappan Civilization practiced cremation of the dead and offered objects for use in the afterlife. Many religious artifacts from Harappan civilization, in one way or another, became part of the modern Indian civilization.
The writing that Harappans used was called Indus Script and consisted of about 600 symbols. The Harappan language has been found on stamps and seals made of carved stone used for trading potter and tools dating from 3300-3200 BC. These artifacts contain short inscriptions with four or five characters. Unlike cuneiform and hieroglyphics, the Harappan language has still not been deciphered. This is due to the fact that linguists have not found any inscriptions that are bilingual to translate the Harappan language.
3C- PLANNED CITIES IN THE INDUS VALLEY
The Indus Valley civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, is the oldest known civilization in the Indian subcontinent. It lasted from around 3300-1300 BCE. The civilization reached from Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. The two largest cities in the Indus Valley Civilization were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
Similar to Mesopotamia, this civilization grew from small villages and towns to larger centralized cities with the emergence of the use of irrigation and agriculture. Historians know less about Indus Valley civilizations than other early groups because their writing system has yet to be deciphered. Archaeological digs, however, let us know they had advanced and highly planned cities with grid systems, brick platforms, centralized protected citadels, and plumbing.
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The cities in the Indus Valley were very organized. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were rectangular in shape, built with blocks. and divided by a grid of straight streets that ran north to south and east to west. Many of the cities and small villages in the civilization share this similar layout. Cities featured a fortified area called a citadel, which contained the major buildings of the city and military structures. For instance, in Harappa, a citadel was surrounded by a large brick wall and provided protection for the royal family and served as a temple.
There were also remains of shops and craft workshops such as metalwork, bead making, pottery, and kilns. The people of the Indus Valley used mud from the river to make bricks to build their buildings. They would mix the soil with water and press it into wooden molds then bake it in the sun or a kiln. Harappa was partially built on mud-brick platforms about 20 feet thick to protect it from flooding. A thick brick wall about three and a half miles long surrounded Harappa and buildings were constructed of oven baked bricks cut in standard sizes.
The houses in Harappan civilization ranged in size. There were single room structures with cooking and bathing areas. Larger houses featured a central courtyard with attached rooms.
The Indus Valley Civilization shows the first and most efficient ancient urban sanitation systems in the world. Plumbing was very well planned out and considered advanced for its time. In Mohenjo-Daro, almost every house had a private bathroom and toilet made of brick. The connected pipes carried wastewater underground and out of the city.
3D- THE VARNA AND CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA
Around 1600 BCE, about 500 years after the ancient Indus River Valley Civilization fell, historians believe that nomadic Indo-Aryan people migrated into northern India. These Indo-Aryans were originally hunters and herders from Central Asia. When they migrated to the Indian subcontinent, they learned agriculture and began developing settlements and cities. This led to the development of new civilizations in India.
These people had a religious tradition that they developed from their sacred texts called the Vedas. The Rig Veda is a Vedic text that describes the mythological creation of the world and the sacrifice of the first human, a giant named Purusha.
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The texts state that Purusha was separated into four parts by the gods. These four parts became the four varna of people in Aryan society. Purusha’s mouth became the Brahmins, his arms became the Kshatriyas, his legs became the Vaishyas, and his feet became the Shudras.
The highest varna in society were the Brahmins, which included priests, scholars, judges, teachers, and landowners The Brahmins were believed to understand the Dharma, or spiritual laws that governed the universe. Many Brahmins lived in the temples apart from the rest of society.
The next varna included the Kshatriya who were the rulers and warriors. They made everyday decisions and ran the government. The third varna was made up of peasants, farmers and traders called Vaishyas. Sometimes Vaishyas held some leadership positions in smaller villages. The last varna was made up of laborers and known as Shudras. They mostly worked on farms owned by wealthier people in their community.
In addition to the varna system, there were also groups known as Jāti. A Jāti is a like a tribe or community, typically associated with an occupation or geography. This usually provided an identity but also allowed for change. However, one's Jāti was usually the community within which one married and spent most of one's personal life
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Over time, the varna and Jāti system, which both focused more on jobs and the functions of society, developed into a "caste system" that emphasized heredity and distinct classes. Ruling elites during the Mughal Empire, and especially the British Raj, created a strict caste system to administer society.
The Caste System turned into an important aspect of life in India. People were born into their caste and remained there for life. Their caste membership determined the work they did, the man or woman they could marry, and the people with whom they could dine. Cleanliness and purity were also regarded as very important. Those considered the most impure because of their work as butchers, gravediggers, and collectors of trash lived outside the caste structure. These people, known as “Dalit” had few rights and could not move up or marry out of their caste.
3E- THE MAURYA EMPIRE IN INDIA
Many rulers throughout ancient history are best known for unifying regions into one empire. Chandragupta is credited for unifying the Northern Indian region, creating the first and largest empire in the Indian subcontinent during its time.
Around the period of 700 BCE to 350 BCE, hundreds of kingdoms existed in Northern India. These kingdoms were highly fragmented and would often wage war against each other. That changed in 326 BCE when the Macedonian general Alexander the Great seized control over this region for a brief period.
When Alexander the Great withdrew from the region, many kingdoms again wanted to control the land. The powerful Kingdom of Magdha eventually seized control over the Indus Valley. In 321 BCE, Chandragupta rose to power and claimed the throne in the Kingdom of Magdha. This began the Mauryan Empire, which ruled the region from 322-185 BCE.
From the Maurya capital city of Pataliputra, Chandragupta expanded the Mauryan empire. He took control over the kingdoms that were previously disrupted by Alexander the Great’s armies. To aid in his conquests, Chandragupta raised a vast army containing 600,000 foot soldiers, 300,000 cavalrymen, and 9,000 elephants. To clothe, feed, and pay these troops, the government levied high taxes.
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The government that Chandragupta formed provided a stable and unified state in India. Under his reign, the Mauryan empire established a single currency that allowed internal trade to thrive. The empire enacted regional governors that provided justice and security along the trade routes. Chandragupta also created a vast spy network for security inside and outside of the empire.
Chandragupta relied on an adviser named Kautilya (also known as Chanakya). Kautilya assited Chandragupta in his rise to power and then served as the chief advisor to both Chandragupta and his son Bindusara.
Chandragupta reigned from 322-298 BCE and voluntarily retired giving the throne Bindusara. When Bindusara died, he was succeeded by his son Ashoka. Ashoka would become the most important emperor in Indian history.
Ashoka ruled from 269 to 232 BCE. He was an aggressive monarch and brilliant military commander that pushed for expansion of the empire in southern and western India. However, after an extremely bloody battle, Ashoka renounced war and violence. He converted to Buddhism and declared that he would rule in peace.
Even though Ashoka wanted to be a loving, peaceful ruler, he had to control a massive empire. He attempted to strike a balance between keeping power and Buddha’s teachings of being unselfish. Instead of spies, he employed officials to look out for his subjects’ welfare.
Ashoka had extensive roads built so that he could visit the far corners of India. He also improved conditions along these roads to make travel easier for his officials and to improve communication in the vast empire.
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3F- THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT CHINA
Like the other early civilizations, it was along rivers and in river valleys that the first civilization developed in Ancient China. There were two important river valleys in Ancient China: the Huang He, or “Yellow” River, to the north and the Yangtze River to the south.
Flowing west-to-east, the Yellow River gets its name from the yellowish tint of its water. This is a result of a rich, yellow colored soil beneath the and around the river that was ideal for farming.
The river valley around the Huang He has come to be known as the cradle of Chinese civilization because it was here that China's earliest civilization developed.
The Yangtze River lies to the south of the Yellow River and also flows to the east. Here, Neolithic farmers began to cultivate rice. The region's warm, rainy climate helped make the Yangtze Delta the most fertile soil in all of China.
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Fishing in the Yangtze and nearby ponds helped provide abundant amount of fish. Between extensive rice cultivation and fishing, there was enough food for a booming population along the river valley.
However, one problem with people living along these rivers is the periodic flooding that occurs. The Yellow River often flooded and destroyed farmland.
Chinese mythology tells of how the first emperor Yu the Great organized large-scale projects in irrigation and dike-building. This irrigation helped to distribute flood waters through canals and bring water to more farms.
Yu would then go on to establish the first dynasty of China, the Xia. While this is a legend, archaeologists have found evidence of early dikes and canals around the river.
China’s geography also helped to protect it against invaders. The Himalaya Mountains are the largest in the world and protect China to the southwest. Spanning across northern and northeastern China is the Gobi Desert, while the Pacific Ocean lies to the east.
For centuries, the Chinese were in relative isolation from the rest of the world. In fact, because the Chinese believed they were in the middle of the world surrounded by natural barriers on all sides, the Chinese thought of themselves as "Zhong Guo" — the Middle Kingdom.
3G- CHINESE CULTURE
The Ancient Chinese civilization was highly advanced and contributed many important aspects of culture to the world. Ancient China was a very independent civilization. Its formidable land lacked easy travel routes and made it very difficult for hostile invasions. This allowed early Chinese culture to develop aspects such as filial piety, religious beliefs, and writing that influenced and shaped a strong Chinese culture and society.
The Chinese language is one of the oldest in the world. Some of the oldest Chinese script was found on oracle bones that were used to tell people’s fortunes. Writing was an important part of early Chinese culture. It was used for historical record keeping, art, literature, and education.
The written Chinese language was used by the government to unify a large and diverse land and made control much easier. People in all parts of China could learn the same system of writing even if their spoken languages were very different. The Chinese system had an enormous number of characters and scholars who studied it were highly respected.
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Early Chinese cultures worshiped gods of nature. They believed that the gods had the power to affect things like the weather, harvests, warfare, and the health of the king. As religion became more established, the gods were given names and rituals were developed to honor them. Shang kings consulted the gods through the use of oracle bones, animal bones, and tortoises. Later in China, family became closely linked to religion with the rise of ancestor worship. The Chinese believed that the spirits of family ancestors had the power to bring good fortune or disaster to living members of the family. Every family paid respect to the father’s ancestors and made sacrifices in their honor.
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Confucianism became a popular and dominant philosophy in Chinese history and many emperors adopted its principles. Filial piety is an important principle practiced in early Chinese culture that comes from Confucianism. It is the idea of putting the family’s needs above one’s own needs with deep respect for elders, ancestors, country, and leaders. It determines the moral value of people in society. Filial piety was and still is a value based on strict principles of hierarchy, obligation, and obedience.
3H- THE DYNASTIC CYCLE
For centuries, the Mandate of Heaven and the Dynastic Cycle were central to Chinese views on government. The Mandate of Heaven was the idea that there could be only one legitimate ruler of China at a time. That ruler's power was believed to be bestowed upon them by the blessing of the gods. An important part of the Mandate held that the emperor would use his power for good. If the king was unfair, he would lose approval and his right to govern and the empire would suffer terrible disasters. The Mandate of Heaven was created in 1027 BCE and used by the Zhou Dynasty to overthrow the Shang Dynasty and establish power.
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The Mandate was used for centuries to explain the rise and fall of dynasties in China. Historians call this pattern the dynastic cycle. The cycle followed a circle. The top of the circle would begin with a strong dynasty establishing peace and prosperity. The dynasty would be considered to have the Mandate of Heaven. The dynasty would rule in a fair way and be good to the people by providing land, fair taxes, and a decrease in corruption.
However, in time the emperor would gain more power and further remove himself from the people. Corruption would increase, land would be taken away from the people, and uprisings would occur. Taxes would be raised further, thus burdening and angering the people, and the power of the emperor would begin to weaken.
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The end of the dynasty would be met with natural disasters such as floods, famines, peasant revolts and invasions. These problems became so enormous that the emperor could not remedy them and thus the Chinese people were left to fend for themselves. Eventually, people would organize against the government and revolutions would begin. These rebellions were often met with tremendous violence and bloodshed.
These dynasties would be attacked internally through peasant revolts and externally through hostile invasions. The dynasty would be seen as having lost the Mandate of Heaven and the rebellion was seen as justified. Eventually a new Dynasty would emerge and seize power. The new dynasty gains power, restores peace and order, and claims to have the Mandate of Heaven. The dynastic cycle would last until the end of the Ming Dynasty in 1644 CE.
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3I- COMPARING CHINESE PHILOSOPHIES
Ancient Chinese society was heavily influenced by its early philosophies. These philosophies developed as a response to power struggles between warring kingdoms and the political uncertainty that resulted. The major philosophies of Taoism, Confucianism, and Legalism affected not only the government that ruled the land, but also its people. Even today these belief systems continue to play a role in the lives of the Chinese people.
Taoism was created by philosopher Lao-Tzu, who wrote the Tao Te Ching during the Zhou Dynasty in the 6th century BCE. Taoists believe that a universal force guides all living things and the natural order is more important than the social order. Humans should model this principle by trying to live as simply as possible and in harmony with nature. In addition, humans should accept their situation and understand that negative things happen to them because nature balances good and bad energy. The Ying Yang symbol is used to represent this balance of the universe.
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Another important philosophy was based on the teachings and philosophies of Confucious. At the time, China was in disorder because the lords were not ruling favorably. Confucius believed in the importance of honor and morality and that rulers needed to be honest, rule fairly, and set a good example for their subjects. If rulers acted with integrity, then their subjects would gladly follow their leadership and order would be restored to China. Confucianism teaches that respect for parents and elders is essential for a well-ordered society. Strong family relationships are keys to social order, harmony, and good government. Confucianism believes in the importance of education to both the welfare of the individual and to society.
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Legalism was an important philosophy developed by Chinese philosopher Han Feizi during a time of constant warfare in China. Legalism would be the doctrine adopted by China's first imperial dynasty.
The first emperor, Qin Shi Huang Di, adopted legalism because he agreed with its basic belief that people were inherently selfish and could not be trusted. He set up a strict government with tight control and enacted laws based on the teachings of Legalism. Severe punishments were useful to maintain social order and he imprisoned and killed people who spoke unfavorably of him. He believed that thoughts and ideas should be strictly controlled by the government, and removed books believed to contain dangerous or harmful information, including books on Confucian philosophy.
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3J- THE DYNASTIES OF ANCIENT CHINA
The Dynastic Cycle is used to describe the rise and fall of the early powerful dynasties in China. These were the Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han Dynasties.
Historians do not fully agree with the beginning of the Shang dynasty, but it is believed that they ruled from around 1760-1046 BCE and had thirty emperors. They had many advancements during their rule. They are credited with developing the first Chinese writing system found on oracle bones that they would use to tell the future. The Shang’s great power was attributed to the use of bronze metallurgy to make weapons that aided them in taking over the previous Xia dynasty. The Shang dynasty maintained control over the bronze trade and did not allow others to gain access to this market. This dynasty was primarily under military rule and may have had over 10,000 troops.
The Zhou dynasty reigned from 1046-256 BCE and established The Mandate of Heaven, a belief that a ruler’s authority came from a higher power and could also be taken away if he acted unjustly. The Zhou Dynasty was large and relied upon a decentralized administration and feudal system. It came to an end however, when individual states became too strong as a result of this decentralization. This led to the beginning of The Warring States Period.
The Warring States Period began in 475 BCE and ended with the fall of the Zhou dynasty in 221 BCE. Advancement in the use of iron technology for tools and weapons changed the face of war and organized armies with cavalry and masses of infantry became more common. During this period the two major philosophies of Confucianism and Taoism were created.The great literary works of these philosophies became the basis for later Chinese religious and social belief systems.
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The Qin dynasty only ruled from 221-206 BCE, but contributed many achievements to Chinese history. The emperor Qin Shihuangdi created a strict government with standardized laws, currencies, weights, and measures. This united the country and greatly improved internal trade. To protect the empire, he ordered the building of The Great Wall of China. Emperor Shi Huangdi maintained tight control over thought and ideas in China and distrusted learning and academics. He ordered 460 scholars to be buried alive and required the burning of all literary, ethical, and history books.
The Han Dynasty ruled from 206 BCE-220 CE. It is sometimes referred to as the Golden Age of China. Under Han Wudi, the Han dynasty conquered Vietnam and Koea and fought off the Northern nomadic people of Xiongnu. The Han were great inventors creating items like paper, iron casting, and agriculture techniques such as crop rotation. The empire became rich from establishing trade on The Silk Road. They traded valuable goods such as iron, silk and paper.
3K- THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA
One of the New Seven Wonders of the World, The Great Wall of China is mankind’s longest structure ever built. It was built over hundreds of years spanning several dynasties. It can even be seen on radar images from space. There were actually 19 walls that were built, but many of them are no longer in existence. The original wall was built by the Qin Dynasty, with other dynasties continuing to work on it throughout history. Eventually, the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE) rebuilt the wall, expanding its length giving us The Great Wall of China that we know today.
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Shi Huangdi, emperor of the Qi Dynasty, ordered the wall to be built to provide a barrier between the Chinese and the northern invaders such as the Mongol, Turkic, and Xiongnu, from modern-day Mongolia and Manchuria. It also provided strategic placement for watchtowers, beacons for signaling, and shelter for soldiers. The wall, coupled with the large amount of manpower that guarded it, made Chinese society safe against outside invaders.
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The section built by the Ming Dynasty is 3,915 miles long, making the Great Wall of China approximately 13,171 miles in length. Some sections of the wall measure up to 30 feet wide and 26 feet high. The Great Wall was built using a variety of materials that were available at the time. At first, the wall was built using compacted dirt, straw, and stone. Later, the Ming Dynasty would use materials such as stone, brick, wood, and tamped earth. The Great Wall extends through varying terrains and even along high mountains. The wall was built using the labor of peasants and prisoners as a form of punishment by the emperor. Building the wall was exceedingly difficult and dangerous. Workers faced the threat of falling stones, exhaustion, disease, extreme weather conditions, animal attacks and starvation.
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