CHAPTER 1- PREHISTORY:
1A. EARLY HOMINIDS OF THE PALEOLITHIC ERA
Hominids are the family that includes humans and our extinct ancestors. Archaeologists study fossils and artifacts that they find to learn about these ancient ancestors. Carbon dating is used to give the approximate ages of these fossils. When a fossil is found, scientists measure the amount of carbon-14 present in the sample and compare it against a reference standard.
So far, the oldest first human-like hominid to walk upright is the Australopithecus. The first Australopithecus fossils were discovered in 1924 in a quarry in South Africa. Following this, archaeologists working in Southern and Eastern Africa have found additional fossils.
So far, the oldest first human-like hominid to walk upright is the Australopithecus. The first Australopithecus fossils were discovered in 1924 in a quarry in South Africa. Following this, archaeologists working in Southern and Eastern Africa have found additional fossils.
Australopithecus lived between 4 million and 2 million years ago. Australopithecines had 32 teeth, like modern humans but a much smaller brain than later hominids.
The most famous Australopithecus to be discovered was Lucy, a skeleton discovered by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson in 1974. Johanson and his team discovered that Lucy was bipedal (meaning she walked on 2 feet), had a human-like knee joint, and other human and ape-like characteristics. The next fossils to be found belong to a hominid named “Homo habilis” and have also been found in Eastern Africa. Homo habilis lived from about 2.3 million to 1.6 million years ago.
Their slightly larger brain size likely means that they were more intelligent. It is believed they were the first human-like creature to make stone tools. These early tools were very basic and included stone hammers, spears, and knives for hunting. This is why Homo habilis is called the “handy man”. |
Homo erectus lived between 2 million and 1.6 million years ago. Homo erectus fossils have been found in Africa, Asia, and Europe, showing that these hominids migrated much further than earlier hominids like Homo Habilis.
Homo erectus had a very human-like walk and body proportions. They were also the first human species to have a flat face, prominent nose, and sparse body hair Modern science has found that Neanderthal technology was actually quite sophisticated. They created stone tools, used fire in stone ovens, and crafted simple clothes, blankets, and ponchos. They engaged in seafaring through the Mediterranean, made use of medicinal plants, and found ways to treat severe injuries.
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Neanderthals were likely capable of speech, possibly articulate, though it is unclear how complex their language would have been. They probably went extinct due to competition with modern humans or due to great climatic change, disease, or a combination of these factors.
The first modern humans found in Europe are known as the Cro-Magnon man. They were anatomically alike to modern humans and lived about 48,000 - 15,000 years ago They lived in Europe while the Neanderthals were still there and interbed.
Modern scientists concluded that most Europeans and Asians have approximately 2% Neanderthal DNA. Indigenous sub-Saharan Africans have none, or very little Neanderthal DNA, because their ancestors did not migrate through Eurasia.
Cro-Magnon man lived in caves or small huts in the forest. Long houses made of stone or wood were also used for larger communities of 30-100 people. The paintings they created on cave walls have helped archaeologists learn about their lives and communities.
Modern scientists concluded that most Europeans and Asians have approximately 2% Neanderthal DNA. Indigenous sub-Saharan Africans have none, or very little Neanderthal DNA, because their ancestors did not migrate through Eurasia.
Cro-Magnon man lived in caves or small huts in the forest. Long houses made of stone or wood were also used for larger communities of 30-100 people. The paintings they created on cave walls have helped archaeologists learn about their lives and communities.
1B- HUNTER- GATHERER SOCIEtiES
In the Old Stone Age, people were nomads. People who live a nomadic lifestyle do not settle down in one place. They move around, taking their whole life with them. Some people live like this today, but in the Old Stone Age nomads were highly mobile.
Why would a group of people move around so much? It seems like the easier option would be to stay put. However, in the Old Stone Age, there were no consistent sources of food. There were no supermarkets, modes of transportation, etc. Life was entirely different. People actually had to follow their food in order to survive.
Hunter-gatherers foraged for food. That is, they searched for it. They followed animals to hunt and looked for fresh sources of plant-based nutrition. So, because these peoples' food supply depended on hunting animals and gathering plant foods, they were called hunter-gatherers.
Why would a group of people move around so much? It seems like the easier option would be to stay put. However, in the Old Stone Age, there were no consistent sources of food. There were no supermarkets, modes of transportation, etc. Life was entirely different. People actually had to follow their food in order to survive.
Hunter-gatherers foraged for food. That is, they searched for it. They followed animals to hunt and looked for fresh sources of plant-based nutrition. So, because these peoples' food supply depended on hunting animals and gathering plant foods, they were called hunter-gatherers.
Men and women had different responsibilities when it came to securing food. Men were in charge of hunting large mammals, seafood, and birds.
Women were in charge of gathering grains, seeds, nuts, fruits, roots, eggs, grubs, small animals, and insects. By dividing the work this way, hunter-gatherers were able to have a nutritious diet with variety. Hunter-gatherers developed tools and methods for getting their food. Prehistoric hunters of this society made special spears which made it possible for them to successfully hunt and kill animals from greater distances.
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Gatherers had digging sticks which helped them to pick root vegetables. Root vegetables and tubers can be very difficult to harvest because the roots run deep and can be very strong. These tools made it possible to pry the plants away from the soil at the base of the roots.
There were many different materials used for tools. Early humans also had tools made of stone, bone, and wood. There were over 100 different kinds of tools in hunter-gatherer society. A hunter’s kit could include fishing hooks, harpoons, and various knives.
Have you heard of the paleo diet? It is actually connected to what we know about hunter-gatherers. Consider the foods they ate: meat, eggs, fish, vegetables, and berries. It’s a simple diet free from processed foods, high in protein and healthy fats, and low in simple carbohydrates.
1C- PREHISTORIC CAVE PAINTINGS
Prehistoric cave paintings were much more than just interesting artwork. They served a purpose and can teach us a lot about prehistoric society. There are many theories about what their exact purpose could have been.
One theory is that people had more time on their hands in the prehistoric era. Imagine not living by the clock. The sun was how people kept time. In a prehistoric society, people were living by the seasons. They may have needed something to occupy their time in the colder winter season, since they wouldn’t be out hunting and gathering as much.
Another theory involves the beliefs of prehistoric people. It could be that by drawing the animals and other natural elements, they believed that they were taking on some of the subjects’ powers or even helping them in their abilities.
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They could also have had a religious meaning. Perhaps, a special reverence or respect for certain animals and other parts of the natural world. After all, their lives were very intertwined with nature.
Unlike people today, people of the prehistoric era lived their life according to nature’s pace. There were no such things as heat, air conditioning, alarm clocks, etc. They were much more a part of the natural world, rather than trying to overcome it as many developed societies do today.
Prehistoric cave paintings can shed some light on what society valued at this time. They show that some human beings valued art and could have been motivated to create it. The subjects show what was important to them. They often depicted animals such as bison, deer, leopards, bears, bulls, and more. They also showed what the land looked like. Because of this, we have a picture of what the local area may have looked like at the time the painting was created. Interestingly, cave paintings didn’t often show vegetation.
We can learn a lot from cave paintings. First, it is clear that there were not any written languages. Whatever people wanted to communicate or record, they had to draw it out in pictures. We also know that animals were very important to people in the prehistoric era. How do we know this? They were the main feature of all the paintings.
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Next time you see a picture of a cave painting, try to see if you can imagine what the artist was trying to communicate. You may be surprised how much you can learn about our prehistoric ancestors’ world.
1D- THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION
The Agricultural Revolution is regarded as a major event in human history. Remember hunter-gatherers? They were nomads. It would be very hard to move around from place to place, and people back then were certainly aware of that. A major change in human lifestyle occurred. People created advanced tools, farming methods, and domesticated animals.
There are several possible factors which contributed to the Agricultural Revolution. One key factor was probably climate change. That’s because rising temperatures across the globe gave people longer growing seasons. The land would also have been more dry, making it easier to cultivate wild grasses. Whatever the combination of reasons, human life would never be the same.
Tools became specialized and were crafted with great skill. Hunters created special spears which allowed them to kill animals from farther away.
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For gathering root vegetables, people used special digging sticks to pry plants away from the soil at the roots. There were even different kinds of knives that were used for hunting and killing large game. For fishing, people used fishing hooks and even harpoons. Tools were also used for reasons other than getting food. People crafted needles made out of bone, which were used for sewing clothes.
Staying in one place meant that people had to cultivate their own food. Early farming methods included slash-and-burn farming. This is still used in some parts of the world today, such as Southeast Asia, Central Africa, and northern parts of South America.
Early farmers cut trees or grasses and then burned them to clear a field. What remained were ashes, which in turn fertilized the soil. Farmers would then plant crops for one or two years, then cultivate another area of land.
People’s relationship with animals also changed. Domestication of animals started with hunters. They had expert knowledge of wild animals in which their society could use for taming them.
Some of the animals we know they tamed include horses, dogs, goats, and pigs. Animal domestication certainly did not happen overnight. Like farming, this was a slow, gradual process. Can you imagine trying to tame a wild horse? This was hard work which required lots of skill.
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The Agricultural Revolution set the foundation for what we know as modern human life. The ability to stay in one general area and cultivate our own food made life much more manageable, and contributed to the growth of human society in terms of culture, technology, and more.
1E- COMPARING THE PALEOLITHIC & NEOLITHIC AGES
The Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age were similar, yet different. Life changed a lot from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age in terms of culture and technology. This is mainly because of the event of the Agricultural Revolution.
The first difference is the time frame. The Paleolithic Age lasted from about 2.5 million to 8,000 BCE, while the Neolithic Age lasted from approximately 8,000-3,000 BCE, in some areas of the world. It may have been different because different areas had different climates. This would have impacted their ability to change their lifestyle and start farming much sooner.
Another difference is how people sourced their food. In the Paleolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age, people mainly hunted and gathered food in a nomadic way. On the other hand, during the Neolithic age, people were starting to cultivate land. That meant they could live in one general area.
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The Neolithic age was also known as the New Stone Age. During this era, people began to domesticate cattle, sheep, and goats. Remember, that this didn’t happen in a day. Animal domestication was a slow and gradual process.
There were also physical differences between people in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages. For instance, in the Neolithic Age, women had more children. This is because the lifestyle was no longer nomadic. On the other hand, in the Paleolithic Age, people were generally taller and had a longer life expectancy than the Neolithic people.
Despite the differences, there were also similarities between these two ages. Both Paleolithic and Neolithic people used to keep records in the form of pictures. That is because neither had written records. In both times, hunter-gatherers used axes, knives, spears, and other tools to hunt animals and harvest plants to eat. Also, in both times, men were more involved in hunting animals while women foraged for nuts and berries. Finally, and importantly, people in both ages wore some type of clothing.
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From clothes to tools and domesticated animals, human life changed drastically from the Paleolithic Age to the Neolithic Age. 2.5 million BCE to 3,000 BCE is a very long time, so you can imagine how gradual the change was. Although it was am extremely long timeframe, the developments in human life set the foundation for life as we know it today.
1F- ARCHAEOLOGY AND LEARNING ABOUT EARLY HUMANS
Archaeology is the field of study which allows us to learn about our collective human and natural history. Through the discovery and analysis of fossils and artifacts, archaeologists help us to better understand ourselves as humans, and our relationship with the natural world.
Fossils are studied by paleontologists. Fossils are evidence of early life which has been preserved in layers of rock. The natural conditions, when just right, allow something like a leaf or bone to be preserved in rock. There are fossils of plant life, animal bone, and human bone. When it comes to human fossils, most often they are in the form of small fragments of teeth, skulls, or other bones. It may sound like a small piece of history, but even a fragment of a bone can lead to many other discoveries.
That is because the fossils can be analyzed to figure out their age, when they lived, any health conditions the person had, and the type of lifestyle they may have lived.
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Artifacts are not the same as fossils. Simply put, fossils were alive. Artifacts were not. Artifacts are objects made by human hands. Common examples of artifacts are jewelry and tools. These artifacts shed light on the culture, lifestyle, and beliefs of a group of people. They might show us how people dressed, what type of work they did, or even their religious beliefs.
Although archaeologists study artifacts, anthropologists study what makes us human. Anthropologists examine artifacts at archaeological sites, and analyze them together so that they can recreate a picture of how early people lived in terms of their cultural behavior. For example, if human bones were found alongside a long hunting spear with animal bones nearby, it could be inferred that these people were hunters.
How do paleontologists know the age of fossils? There are several ways to calculate the age of fossil remains. Paleontologists have complex techniques to date fossils and rocks. One such technique is carbon dating. Carbon dating can determine the age of even the most ancient objects. How it works is this: the amount of carbon left in an artifact is measured. Why carbon? Carbon-14 atoms take a very long time to decay. So, by measuring the amount left, we can get an accurate idea about the timeframe in which the fossil was actually a living being.
1G- WHAT IS A CIVILIZATION?
Civilization is the stage of human social development and organization that is considered most advanced. A civilization can also be defined as a complex culture with five significant characteristics: advanced cities, specialized workers, complex institutions, record keeping, and advanced technology.
Advanced cities are an important feature of civilized life. Cities were actually the birthplaces of the first civilizations. Evidence of the first civilizations can be found in Mesopotamia. Just like today, cities came into existence and grew due to trade.
Ancient city dwellers relied on trade in order to continue their non-nomadic lifestyle. In exchange for various goods, city dwellers produced a wide variety of goods that they could trade. This was a very early form of economics, in which trading was used as a form of currency.
Specialized workers were another sign of development. Because people were no longer busy following their food as nomadic hunter-gatherers, they had more time on their hands. This meant that they had the time to develop specialized skills. For instance, some city dwellers became artisans.
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An artisan is a skilled worker who makes goods by hand. Artisans were known for making pottery, clothes, baskets, works of art, etc., and they played an important role in early civilization because their wide range of crafts helped cities to become centers of trade.
Complex institutions developed naturally because a civilization meant that lots of people were living in one area. City populations were soaring, which meant that people needed a system of ruling, or government to keep order. Leaders of civilizations eventually emerged so that they could create and enforce laws. Before civilization, people had religious beliefs, as was seen in cave paintings. However, in early civilization, religion became a formal institution. The coming together of large numbers of people really changed how the way life was lived- from religion to rules.
In this time, record keeping extended far beyond pictures. In Mesopotamia, Sumerians developed a writing system called cuneiform. Cuneiform was recorded by inscribing information onto clay tablets. During these times, writers were called scribes. Scribes would keep records of important information such as the names of rulers, laws, and important historical events on clay tablets.
Technology continued to advance in early civilization. For hunting, it went beyond using wood, bone and stone tools. Around 3500 BCE, bronze tools began appearing in Sumerian culture, and artisans began using the potter’s wheel for the first time. With the potter’s wheel, artisans were able to make jugs, plates, and bowls. By 2500 BCE, metalworkers in Sumer produced thousands of bronze spearheads. Just imagine how much time was saved by the development of such technology.
The first civilizations saw a way of life almost entirely different from the prehistoric era. Agriculture, financial systems, religion, law, and technology all defined a new way of human life.