CHAPTER 11: CIVILIZATIONS AND EMPIRES IN THE AMERICAS
11A- THE GEOGRAPHY OF MESOAMERICA
Mesoamerica is a region located in the southern part of North America, where several pre-Columbian civilizations thrived. The geography of this region played a significant role in the development of these civilizations.
Most of Mesoamerica has a tropical climate with high temperatures and humidity throughout the year. A rainy season runs from May to October. During this period, heavy rains can cause flooding in some areas, especially around lakes and river valleys. The dry season, which lasts from November to April, brings drier weather conditions that can lead to droughts.
The tropical climate and abundant rainfall leads to fertile soil. Civilizations developed advanced agricultural practices, allowing them to sustain large populations. However, the periodic droughts sometimes devastated crops and lead to famine.
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The mountains of Mesoamerica also played an important role in shaping the physical geography of the region. This is especially true in South America, where the Inca flourished in the Andes Mountains.
The Sierra Madre is a mountain range that stretches north to south in modern-day Mexico. In the center is the Mexican Plateau and the Valley of Mexico. This is where the Aztec Civilization developed, centered on an island in Lake Texcoco.
There they developed a special farming method known as chinampas, meaning "floating gardens". These man-made floating islands allowed them to grow crops in the shallow lake bed.
The mountains and valleys created natural barriers that separated the different regions of Mesoamerica and influenced the movement of people and goods between them. This led to the development of distinct cultures and traditions in each region. For example, the Maya developed in the lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula, while the Aztecs lived in the highlands of central Mexico.
To the south of this area in Central America lies a dense rainforest, with the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east.
This rainforest kept Mayan city-states somewhat isolated as well. They never truly unified into an empire because the thick jungle was too great an obstacle for them to develop.
These jungles also featured fresh water sinkholes known as cenotes that provided the civilizations there with drinking water.
The rainforest continued into South America, where the Inca civilization developed with the Amazon jungle to the east, a coastal desert and Pacific Ocean to the west, and Andes Mountains running down the middle.
The Inca built thousands of miles of roads through the mountains, connecting their cities and mines, which provided minerals like gold, silver, and emeralds. This brought them great wealth.
11B- EARLY MESOAMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
Mesoamerica is a region that stretches south from modern-day Mexico to northern Honduras. Several complex societies flourished here beginning over 3,000 years ago.
One of the first civilizations we know of in Mesoamerica was the Olmec people. They lived from about 1200-400 BCE. There are very few written records to help historians fully understand this civilization.
From what we do know, the Olmec thrived in the fertile lands of south-central Mexico. They were very resourceful and used many of the natural resources in the area, including rubber and corn.
Their major urban city was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. It was located on vast agricultural land with a ceremonial center whose population could have reached 13,000. The Olmec were great traders and engaged with cultures throughout Mexico and Central America.
The Olmec are best known for the colossal stone heads they carved. The sculptures are between 3 and 11 feet tall and weigh up to 28 tons. Historians believe that the monuments are portraits of powerful Olmec rulers.
The Olmec had a rich, polytheistic religion with at least eight gods and it appears priests and shamans were important figures in their society.
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The Olmecs were likely the inventors of the Mesoamerican ballgame, also known as pok-ta-pok. This is one of the earliest known sports and was played with a rubber ball and a stone goal.
The Olmec are considered to be the “mother” civilization in Mesoamerica. Civilizations that followed such as the Mayan and Aztec were heavily influenced by the Olmec’s characteristics.
The Zapotec civilization came nearly 100 years after the Olmec and thrived from about 500 BCE to 900 CE. They also lived in the Valley of Oaxaca. They were an agricultural society with many well-developed cities. Their largest city was Monte Alban which housed over 25,000 people.
The Zapotec created one of the earliest inscriptions and writing systems in Mesoamerica. They were also artisans and created jewelry for rulers.
They had a complex polytheistic religion, with two main gods called Cocijo, the rain god, and Coquihani, the god of light. The Zapotec may have also practiced human sacrifice in their religious rituals. They made use of pyramids that the Aztec and Maya would later adopt.
The Olmec civilization declined between 400-350 BCE. Archaeologists are unsure about the exact reason but evidence shows that it might have been caused by environmental changes that choked off their water supply. However, they didn't disappear completely and evolved into later civilizations.
The Zapotecs fought the growing Aztec Empire which came to dominate the region. They were finally fully conquered by the invading Spanish in the early 1500s.
11C- THE MAYA CIVILIZATION
The Maya civilization dates back as far as 2000 BCE. At this time, early Mayans were developing a complex society in Central America and became the largest civilization in the region from about 420 CE to 900.
Their civilization stretched from southern Mexico to northern Central America, centered in the Yucatan Peninsula and the dense jungles of modern-day Guatemala and Belize. The land in the region ranged from highland mountains to lowland plains.
The early Maya were nomads moving from region to region to find food and shelter. They established settlements around 1,800 BCE and began farming crops of maize, beans, squash, and chili peppers.
Following this, the Maya began building more complex cities with large structures and pyramids. It was during this time that the Maya made many advancements in art and thinking. They practiced astronomy, mathematics, art, and architecture. They used this knowledge to develop a sophisticated calendar and a complex writing system.
They preserved their work on a bark-paper book known as The Codex, three of which still survive. Their farming advanced as well and they engineered new techniques such as planting on raised beds above swamps and on hillside terraces.
The Maya believed in many gods that were based on nature and influenced all parts of their lives. They carried out human sacrifices to their gods and made other offerings. Gods were associated with the 4 directions and different colors. Mayan kings were believed to be mediators between people and the gods. Many kings were thought to be gods themselves. The Maya religion was connected to the calendar. They believed that each day was a living god whose behavior could be predicted with calendars. Their important ceremonies and festivals were scheduled based on the position of the stars and the days of their calendar.
The Mayan civilization reached its peak around 900 CE before various problems led to its decline. Many people abandoned the cities in the lower part of the region. Evidence of new building stopped, with various theories as to why this happened. Some believe that a natural disaster or disease affected the people, or that there was not enough food to feed the growing population.
The northern region of the Mayan civilization continued in small villages until they were finally conquered by invading Spanish conquistadors. There are still 6 million people with Mayan ancestry living in Central America today.
11D- THE INCA EMPIRE
The Inca were a powerful civilization that developed in the Andes Mountains along the west coast of South America. The mountain ranges helped protect their city-states and allow for a well-developed government and society. The empire thrived in this region from about 1200-1532.
The Inca Empire was ruled by an emperor known as the Sapa Inca, meaning “sole ruler”. Manco Capac was the first Sapa Inca and established the Kingdom of Cuzco around the year 1200. The city of Cuzco was the capital of the Inca Empire.
A later Sapa Inca, Emperor Pachacuti greatly expanded the empire by conquering nearly all of Peru. At its peak, the Inca Empire had over 10 million inhabitants.
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The Inca called their empire Tawantinsuyu. They were skilled diplomats and divided the territory into smaller units with a central bureaucracy that featured different ranks of government officials. The government had total control over economic and social life. They had a laws, a tax system, and harsh punishments for criminals.
The Inca built large cities and temples made of stone without the use of any iron tools. They also engineered intricate stone-paved roads and bridge systems that extended across their empire. They built around the environment inserting steps into steep areas of the mountains. The stones were shaped and fit together perfectly to provide strength to withstand earthquakes and time.
Below the nobles were the public administrators or lower-level government officials. The lowest class were the commoners, who were artisans and farmers.
Religion played a large role in daily and governmental life. The Inca built marvelous temples in tribute to their gods. Coricancha was the most important temple. It was covered in sheets of gold and was built to the Inca Sun god, Inti. The Inca practiced mummification of bodies and provided gifts to the dead to help them in the afterlife.
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The arrival of Europeans in 1520 brought war and disease to the Inca which weakened the empire. The Inca were eventually conquered by Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro in 1533.
11E- THE AZTEC EMPIRE
The greatest empire of Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, developed in the Valley of Mexico where modern-day Mexico City is located. The Aztecs were driven out of their previous home in Culhuacan and roamed central Mexico for a place to settle. In 1325, they found an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. There, they saw an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. They believed this was a sign from the gods that this is where they would live and founded the city of Tenochtitlan.
The Aztecs built islands on the water and used the natural resources available to them to grow crops. Tenochtitlan was an incredibly well planned and built city. The Aztecs built causeways, bridges, and canals to travel to and from the city. At its peak, it housed around 400,000 people. In the city, there were temples, ball game courts, schools, and markets.
For farming, they invented chinampas, which were floating gardens to grow crops in swampy lake beds with canals running between them.
The Aztec Empire had city-states that were mostly independently and paid tribute to their emperor. In 1498, The Aztecs formed the Triple Alliance with the Acolhua in Texcoco and the Tepaneca in Tlacopan. Combined, the Triple Alliance represented a powerful military and economic force. The alliance was sustained through trade and a shared culture.
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The Aztecs believed that emperors were chosen by the gods and had divine right. They had a complex code of laws and different levels of courts. Tenochtitlan was the center of the Aztec government where the emperor and most of the nobles lived.
Aztec society was made up of classes with nobles ruling over commoners. Slaves were held and served the wealthy commoners and nobles. Family was important to the Aztecs, and families were grouped together in Calpulli or small tribes.
The Aztec people had their own language called Nahuatl. Their writing consisted of glyphs or pictographs. They developed two calendars: the Tonalpohualli, which was used to track ceremonies and festivals and the Xiuhpohualli, which tracked time.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods. Some of the main gods were Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, sun, and sacrifice, and Quetzalcoatl, the god of life and wind. Priests performed ceremonies to make sure that the gods were always pleased. The Aztecs practiced human sacrifices to their gods at the top of large ziggurats.
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In 1521, the mighty Aztec Empire was conquered by Spanish conquistadors. Believing that he was the god Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec emperor Montezuma II welcomed the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortez, who later turned the Triple Alliance against the Aztecs and took over Tenochtitlan.
11G- EASTERN WOODLANDS NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES
The Eastern Woodlands describes the North American Atlantic coast area, from the the Great Lakes south to the Gulf of Mexico. Indigenous people lived in these heavily forested areas between the Appalachians and Atlantic for many years.
The Eastern Woodlands are generally divided into Northeastern & Southeastern groups based on their language and culture. |
Northeastern People
There were two major language groups in the northeast: the Algonquian and the Iroquois. These were distinct, separate languages spoken by different tribes in the region.
The Iroquois included the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes, which came together to form a confederacy.
The Confederacy came about as a result of the Great Law of Peace, an oral constitution also written on wampum belts sometime around the year 1142 when a solar eclipse occurred.
There were two major language groups in the northeast: the Algonquian and the Iroquois. These were distinct, separate languages spoken by different tribes in the region.
The Iroquois included the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca tribes, which came together to form a confederacy.
The Confederacy came about as a result of the Great Law of Peace, an oral constitution also written on wampum belts sometime around the year 1142 when a solar eclipse occurred.
At its peak around 1700, Iroquois power extended from modern-day New York State into Canada and the Great Lakes region and Ohio Valley. These people generally lived in large multifamily longhouses and are also known as the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse). Village bands includes many clans were led by one chief. They had a matrilineal kinship system, with inheritance passed through the mother's line. Algonquian tribes include the Lenape, Pequot, Narragansetts, and the Wampanoag. Most lived in oval wigwams and subsisted by hunting & fishing.
Algonquian-speaking did not plant many crops, but primarily relied on hunting for food. This varied based on their location, with the tribes close to the coast hunting seals, porpoises, and whales, while inland tribes hunted deer, moose, and caribou.
The Algonquian-speaking tribes had patrilineal clans, meaning the father's line and were associated with animal totems. |
Southeastern People
The Eastern Woodlands also includes indigenous people of the southeast. This area was more linguistically diverse than the northeast and includes hundreds of different tribes. Some of the larger, more well-known tribes are the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole. These were known as the "Five Civilized Tribes" by Americans because they adopted attributes of Anglo-American culture.
While many were hunters, they were also successful farmers of crops like corn, beans, & pumpkins. Their successful cultivation of corn allowed for larger, more complex chiefdoms consisting of larger villages. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in religious ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony. |
Most people lived in permanent homes and the tribes were usually broken into clans and had structured governments. Some were known for building large earthwork platform mounds like the Mississippians. Nanih Waiya, for example was a sacred Choctaw platform mound in modern-day Mississippi.
As the American colonies and then United States grew, these tribes were forced to sign treaties giving up their territory. Finally, most were forced to march along the Trail of Tears to reservations in Oklahoma.
As the American colonies and then United States grew, these tribes were forced to sign treaties giving up their territory. Finally, most were forced to march along the Trail of Tears to reservations in Oklahoma.
11H- SOUTHWESTERN NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES
The southwest region of the modern United States is a dry climate with little rain. Still, long ago people settled into its deep canyons and dry deserts. Indigenous tribes of the Southwest begin with the Hohokam and include Ancestral Puebloans, the Navajo, and Apache.
The Hohokam
One of the first groups we know about in the Southwest was the Hohokam culture, which had settlements near modern-day Phoenix, Arizona between 300-1500 CE. One of the first groups we know about in the Southwest was the Hohokam culture, which had settlements near modern-day Phoenix, Arizona between 300-1500 CE.
The people may have come from Mesoamerica to the south or migrated from Ancestral Puebloan settlements to the north. The Hohokam are recognized for their large-scale irrigation networks in the dry southwest. They redirected water by digging hundreds of miles of canals to bring water to their crops. They grew cotton, tobacco, maize, beans, and squash, and harvested a vast variety of wild plants. Their creative agricultural strategies allowed them to grow large urban communities in an inhospitable desert. |
The Ancestral Puebloans
To the north of the Hohokam were the Ancestral Puebloans. They had hundreds of communities and are famous for their dwellings built directly into cliff faces. Cliff Palace in southwest Colorado is the largest cliff dwelling and is dated to about 1190-1260 CE. Puebloans lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger adobe buildings to house clans, and grand pueblos. They had a complex network linking hundreds of communities and population centers across the southwest.
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They were farmers of the traditional "Three Sisters" of corn, beans, and squash. The agave plant was also a vital food source and its fibers were used in making baskets and mats. Pueblo means "village" in Spanish and was used it to refer to the people's style of dwelling. The culture is also sometimes referred to as Anasazi, meaning "ancient enemies", as they were called by Navajo. The Hopi, Acoma, and Zuni tribes descended from the Puebloans.
The Navajo
The Navajo people referred to themselves as the Diné. The term Navajo comes from Spanish missionaries who encountered them. Along with the Apache, the Navajo, migrated to the southwest from Canada and Alaska sometime around 1400 CE. Initially, they were hunters and gatherers before learning farming techniques from the Pueblo people in the region. They then began farming corn, beans, and squash. While they traded with the Puebloans, there was also ongoing conflicts throughout their history. The Navajo lived in dome shaped wood and mud houses known as hogans. As they did with all things, the Navajo had male and female hogans, which were built differently but always with the door facing east to welcome the sun each morning. Their religion was rich, with many deities. Rituals were used to restore harmony and balance, which was disrupted by death or violence.
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The Apache
The Apache were distant cousins of the Navajo and included many different tribes. They had no centralized tribal organization, however. Instead, bands were small, autonomous groups led by informal chiefs. Some bands might join together but the position of chief was always earned rather than passed down. Most Apache tribes were nomadic and engaged in hunting and gathering. Many lived in homes known as wikiups, which were domes made of wood.
The Apache fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. After gaining horses from the Spanish, they became skilled warriors and were known for their raiding parties. Their famous leader Geronimo continued the fight against America's expansion into the southwest in the late 1800s.
The Apache were distant cousins of the Navajo and included many different tribes. They had no centralized tribal organization, however. Instead, bands were small, autonomous groups led by informal chiefs. Some bands might join together but the position of chief was always earned rather than passed down. Most Apache tribes were nomadic and engaged in hunting and gathering. Many lived in homes known as wikiups, which were domes made of wood.
The Apache fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. After gaining horses from the Spanish, they became skilled warriors and were known for their raiding parties. Their famous leader Geronimo continued the fight against America's expansion into the southwest in the late 1800s.
11I- MISSISSIPPI NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES
Mississippian people were Native Americans that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 CE to 1600. They are known for building large, earthen platform mounds in their settlements. The largest was Cahokia in present-day southern Illinois. Mississippian culture is usually divided into three chronological eras: Early, Middle, and Late.
The Early Mississippian Period
This era lasted from about 800-1100 CE, though this varies based on the different regions. During this period, the first settlements and chiefdoms developed as people transitioned from a woodland hunter-gatherer way of life. Farming of corn and other crops allowed Mississippians to settle into larger population centers. Settlements had a plaza at the center for religious and social gatherings. Cahokia was the largest settlement with a population between 6,000-40,000 at its peak and 120 large earthen mounds over 6 square miles. It had a strategic location near the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers. |
The Cahokia mounds and those in other Mississippian settlements usually had four steep sides with steps built of wooden logs on one side. It is believed they were used for public temples, a chief's house, other residences, or for ceremonies. The people maintained trade links with communities as far away as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south, trading in such items like copper and shells.
The Middle Mississippian Period
The middle period lasted from about 1150 -1400 and is considered the peak Mississippian culture. Large and more powerful chiefdoms developed across their territory. Cahokia expanded into a large metropolis and ceremonial complex. Similarly, Angel Mounds in modern day Indiana and Etowah Mounds, in northwest Georgia were other major urban sites. The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. However, during this period they worked with copper that was hammered into ritual objects and art pieces. |
The Late Mississippian Period
The late period dates to about 1400 - 1600 and is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. Large chiefdoms broke up into smaller ones after warfare broke out, likely over a shortage of resources due to over-farming or poor harvests. Many Mississippians moved further south, likely precipitated by a little ice age, when temperatures dropped and winters were more severe. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period, perhaps migrating to other rising political centers further south. More defensive structures are often seen at sites from this period along with less mound-building. This period ended with the first contact with Europeans in the 16th century.
The late period dates to about 1400 - 1600 and is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. Large chiefdoms broke up into smaller ones after warfare broke out, likely over a shortage of resources due to over-farming or poor harvests. Many Mississippians moved further south, likely precipitated by a little ice age, when temperatures dropped and winters were more severe. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period, perhaps migrating to other rising political centers further south. More defensive structures are often seen at sites from this period along with less mound-building. This period ended with the first contact with Europeans in the 16th century.
11J- tHE GREAT PLAINS NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES
The Great Plains describes the vast region in the middle of the modern-day United States. Much of this area between the Rocky Mountains and Mississippi River is an arid grassland with little rain that made farming difficult. The indigenous tribes of the Great Plains are usually divided into two groups which overlap.
The first were entirely nomadic during the 18th and 19th centuries. These tribes followed the seasonal grazing and migration of buffalo herds (also known as bison). They lived in tipis made of wooden poles and animal hides that were easily disassembled when they needed to move. These tribes included the Blackfoot, Arapaho, Assiniboine, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, and Plains Apache. The second group lived in permanent villages, raised crops, and traded with other tribes, though they also hunted buffalo. These include the Hidatsa, Mandan, Omaha, Osage, Pawnee, and Dakota tribes. |
Culture
Many of the Plains tribes used a common sign language, known today as Plains Indian Sign Language. It was also used for story-telling, public speeches, and ceremonies.
Many of the Plains tribes used a common sign language, known today as Plains Indian Sign Language. It was also used for story-telling, public speeches, and ceremonies.
Most tribes had their own spiritual views and practices. The yearly Sun Dance was an important ritual for many tribes. This was an elaborate spiritual ceremony that involved multiple days of fasting and prayer for the good of loved ones and the benefit of the entire community.
The Ghost Dance was later ceremony that spread through the Plains. It was held to awaken the spirits of the dead to to fight for the living, end American westward expansion, and unity indigenous peoples.
Women in the Plains typically owned the family's home, tended crops, gathered and prepared food, made clothing, and took down and erected the family's tipis.
The Ghost Dance was later ceremony that spread through the Plains. It was held to awaken the spirits of the dead to to fight for the living, end American westward expansion, and unity indigenous peoples.
Women in the Plains typically owned the family's home, tended crops, gathered and prepared food, made clothing, and took down and erected the family's tipis.
The introduction of horses to the Plains by the Spanish revolutionized Plains culture. Horses enabled them to follow and more easily hunt buffalo herds. Usually, a band would form of hunters in a village. Bands could consist of a dozen to a few hundred people who lived, hunted, and traveled together. Villages usually had fluid populations as hunters came and went with the seasons and there was very little political structure.
Importance of the Buffalo
For most all tribes, buffalo was their primary food source. The meat was dried into a jerky that could last a year. They also famously used almost every part of the buffalo. Buffalo skin and fur were used for blankets and clothes. Hides were tanned for tipis. Bones were used as tools. The hair was used to make ropes and the tendons could be used for sewing thread and strings for their bows. European explorers and settlers brought diseases against which the Indians had no natural immunity. Smallpox is believed to have killed more than half of the Plains Indians and was especially brutal during the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic. Many who survived engaged in armed resistance against American settlers who encroached further and further into their territory.
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11K- GREAT BASIN NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES
The Great Basin refers to the region in North America between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. This translates to the present-day states of Utah and Nevada as well as portions of Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado. The major American Indian tribes of this region include the Shoshone, Ute, Paiute, and Washoe.
The Ute People
The Ute tribe were one of the largest indigenous groups in present-day Utah and Colorado. In fact, the state of Utah is named after the tribe. They called themselves Nuciu, meaning “The People” and there were 11 historic bands of Utes. The Ute people were seasonal hunters and gatherers who operated in family groups. Communities also came together for ceremonies and trading. Many lived in tipis which could be moved with families as travelled seasonally.
They traded tanned elk and deer hides with Puebloans and others. After contact with the Spanish in the 1500s, the Utes acquired horses which changed their lifestyle dramatically. Hunting practices changed and they became more warlike, raiding other nearby tribes.
Like most Great Basin tribes, spirit animals like the wolf, coyote, and mountain lion were important to the Ute people. They believed that they could communicate with animal ancestors. |
The Shoshone
The Shoshone are usually broken into 4 large cultural groups: Eastern, Northern, Western, and Goshute. They were also called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early Europeans and American settlers. They were also called the "Grass House People," based on their traditional homes made from high-growing grasses known as sosoni. Shoshones call themselves Newe, meaning "People". Tribes were nomadic and organized into loosely affiliated family bands of hunter-gatherers. Most lived in tipis most of the year and joined others for rabbit drives, antelope hunts, or dancing.
They famously encountered the Lewis & Clark expedition and Sacajawea was a member of the tribe. As more European-American settlers migrated west, tensions rose over competition for territory and resources. Wars between tribes and American settlers occurred throughout the second half of the 19th century, greatly hurting the Shoshone.
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The Paiute
Like others in the Great Basin, the Paiute were organized around the family. Groups of about about 10-50 related people might come together for foraging and games before going their different ways. The Southern Paiutes were not organized tribally. Instead, groups were led by a Headman who was old enough to know the region well but young enough to take part in all activities.
They were skilled at irrigation for farming and grew corn, squash, melons, and sunflowers. The men were the primary hunters of waterfowl, rabbits, bighorn sheep and other mammals in the regions they passed through.
Women of the Paiute tribes were famous for their basket weaving skills. Baskets were made from red-stemmed willows and the technique was supposedly passed down from mother to daughter for at least 9,000 years.
Like others in the Great Basin, the Paiute were organized around the family. Groups of about about 10-50 related people might come together for foraging and games before going their different ways. The Southern Paiutes were not organized tribally. Instead, groups were led by a Headman who was old enough to know the region well but young enough to take part in all activities.
They were skilled at irrigation for farming and grew corn, squash, melons, and sunflowers. The men were the primary hunters of waterfowl, rabbits, bighorn sheep and other mammals in the regions they passed through.
Women of the Paiute tribes were famous for their basket weaving skills. Baskets were made from red-stemmed willows and the technique was supposedly passed down from mother to daughter for at least 9,000 years.
The Washoe People
The Washoe people lived in the Great Basin and the eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains for at least 3,000 years. They were centered primarily around Lake Tahoe where they would spend summers.
Their legend told of a coyote that brought them to Lake Tahoe as their homeland. It was considered a sacred place to the Washoe with healing powers.
Hunting, gathering, and fishing were central to life. Each family member had a role in these activities and the family unit was how tribes were grouped into bands. Winters were spent at lower elevations in the valleys of the Sierra Nevada.
The discovery of gold in their lands in the mid 1800s brought thousands of white settlers to their lands. This caused a major disruption to Washoe society. By 1862, the Washoe people had lost all of their land.
The Washoe people lived in the Great Basin and the eastern Sierra Nevada Mountains for at least 3,000 years. They were centered primarily around Lake Tahoe where they would spend summers.
Their legend told of a coyote that brought them to Lake Tahoe as their homeland. It was considered a sacred place to the Washoe with healing powers.
Hunting, gathering, and fishing were central to life. Each family member had a role in these activities and the family unit was how tribes were grouped into bands. Winters were spent at lower elevations in the valleys of the Sierra Nevada.
The discovery of gold in their lands in the mid 1800s brought thousands of white settlers to their lands. This caused a major disruption to Washoe society. By 1862, the Washoe people had lost all of their land.
11L- CALIFORNIA AND NORTHWEST COAST TRIBES
Many nations and tribal affiliations make up the indigenous groups of California and the Pacific Northwest. While many share some beliefs, traditions and practices, they all have distinctive cultural and political identities.
Some of the major tribes of Northern California included the Yurok, Mojave, Pomo, Paiute, and Modoc. To the north along the Pacific Northwest Coast were the Tlingit and Haida People. Society and Culture
The Pacific Northwest was densely populated with indigenous people. The land and water provided an abundance of natural resources. Salmon was an essential part of their diet and also an important spiritual symbol. Solid logs of red cedar were carved into masterfully-designed canoes of many sizes. These were used for fishing, trading, and as war canoes. The Haida made some of the largest at around 60 feet in length. Cedar was also used to built large longhouses that were occupied by extended families. |
The temperate climate of California made it an ideal location for the tribes there. They were primarily hunter-gatherers who harvested nuts, berries, and acorns for their diet. Whale meat was also prized among the Yurok, but they waited for a whale to wash onto the beach instead of hunting them.
People lived in individual homes that were passed down patrilineally. Most societies had no chief, but in each village, a man trained by elders acted as the leader. Women were often the medicine people and shamans in the village. They would use plants, prayer, and ritual dances to heal people and also performed ceremonies to ensure successful hunting, fishing, and gathering. Kuksu was a religion practiced by several indigenous groups in Northern California. Practices included elaborate ceremonial dances and rituals to ensure good health, hunts, bountiful harvests, and good weather. |
Art and Technology
As mentioned, woodworking was a skill possessed by many tribes of the Pacific Northwest. Outside of their longhouses often stood large totem poles to commemorate ancestors and legends. These often featured thunderbirds as well as other animals, each with a different meaning. Thunderbirds were a mythical animal that caused thunder with their wings. Eagles represented leadership. Whales to show strength. Wolves were loyalty; bears motherhood or teachers; and beavers represented determination. The Pomo people of Northern California used the mineral magnesite to create beads that were used as a currency. They are also known for their intricately woven and ornamented baskets. |
The Potlatch
Potlatches were gift-giving feasts practiced by indigenous groups across the Pacific Northwest Coast.
They usually involved giving away or destroying valuable items in order to demonstrate a leader's wealth and power. They also were a major part of the government structure and focused on connections between families, clans, and the supernatural world.
A potlatch was held to commemorate births, deaths, adoptions, weddings, and other major events. They involved music, dancing, singing, storytelling, speeches, and games.
Each nation, however, would have their way of practicing the potlatch with diverse activities and meaning.
Potlatches were gift-giving feasts practiced by indigenous groups across the Pacific Northwest Coast.
They usually involved giving away or destroying valuable items in order to demonstrate a leader's wealth and power. They also were a major part of the government structure and focused on connections between families, clans, and the supernatural world.
A potlatch was held to commemorate births, deaths, adoptions, weddings, and other major events. They involved music, dancing, singing, storytelling, speeches, and games.
Each nation, however, would have their way of practicing the potlatch with diverse activities and meaning.