CHAPTER 10: CIVILIZATIONS OF OCEANIA
10A- THE GEOGRAPHY OF OCEANIA
Oceania is comprised of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia and, in a territorial sense, is the largest region on the Earth. In terms of landmass, however, it is the smallest. In economic and demographical senses, the nation-states and territories of Oceania are small by global standard, this together with regions of special geography present unique development challenges. Although often seen from outside as havens of tranquility to which tourist have flocked in recent decades, violent political conflict plagues the region.
The geographic region Oceania includes roughly 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean, mainly in the western and central portions. Oceania covers about 20 million square miles (50 million square kilometers), or roughly one third of the enormous Pacific Ocean. Yet the total land area of the islands is very small—only some 324,000 square miles (840,000 square kilometers). Papua New Guinea and New Zealand represent nine tenths of the total. The other islands cover merely 41,000 square miles (106,000 square kilometers)—about the extent of Portugal or a third of Ecuador. Most of the islands appear simply as isolated specks on a map of the ocean, and some are mere rocks. Some of the islands are crowded with people, but others are total wilderness. About 14 million people live in the region, nearly three quarters of them in New Zealand and Papua New Guinea. The name “Oceania” justly establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent.
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Oceania is dominated by the nation of Australia. The other two major landmasses of Oceania are the microcontinent of Zealandia, which includes the country of New Zealand, and the eastern half of the island of New Guinea, made up of the nation of Papua New Guinea. Oceania also includes three island regions: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia (including the U.S. state of Hawaii).
Oceania can be divided into three island groups: continental islands, high islands, and low islands. The islands in each group are formed in different ways and are made up of different materials. Continental islands have a variety of physical features, while high and low islands are fairly uniform in their physical geography.
Continental Islands
Continental islands were once attached to continents before sea level changes and tectonic activity isolated them. Tectonic activity refers to the movement and collision of different sections, or plates, of the Earth’s crust.
Continental islands were once attached to continents before sea level changes and tectonic activity isolated them. Tectonic activity refers to the movement and collision of different sections, or plates, of the Earth’s crust.
Australia, Zealandia, and New Guinea are continental islands. These three regions share some physical features. All three have mountain ranges or highlands—the Great Dividing Range in Australia; the North Island Volcanic Plateau and Southern Alps in New Zealand; and the New Guinea Highlands in Papua New Guinea. These highlands are fold mountains, created as tectonic plates pressed together and pushed land upward. New Zealand and Papua New Guinea also have volcanic features as a result of tectonic activity.
Although they share some landscape features, each of these regions has distinct physical features that resulted from different environmental processes. Australia’s landscape is dominated by the Outback, a region of deserts and semi-arid land. The Outback is a result of the continent’s large inland plains, its location along the dry Tropic of Capricorn, and its proximity to cool, dry, southerly winds. New Zealand’s glaciers are a result of the islands’ high elevations and proximity to cool, moisture-bearing winds. Papua New Guinea’s highland rain forests are a result of the island’s high elevations, proximity to tropical, moisture-bearing winds, and location right below the warm Equator.
High Islands
High islands, also called volcanic islands, are created as volcanic eruptions build up land over time. These eruptions begin under water, when hot magma is cooled and hardened by the ocean. Over time, this activity creates islands with a steep central peak—hence the name “high island.” Ridges and valleys radiate outward from the peak toward the coastline.
High islands, also called volcanic islands, are created as volcanic eruptions build up land over time. These eruptions begin under water, when hot magma is cooled and hardened by the ocean. Over time, this activity creates islands with a steep central peak—hence the name “high island.” Ridges and valleys radiate outward from the peak toward the coastline.
The island region of Melanesia contains many high islands because it is a major part of the “Ring of Fire,” a string of volcanoes around the boundary of the Pacific Ocean. This part of the Ring of Fire is on the boundary of the Pacific plate and the Australian plate. This is a convergent plate boundary, where the two plates move toward each other. Important volcanic mountains in Melanesia include Mount Tomanivi, Fiji; Mount Lamington, Papua New Guinea; and Mount Yasur, Vanuatu.
Low Islands
Low islands are also called coral islands. They are made of the skeletons and living bodies of small marine animals called corals. Sometimes, coral islands barely reach above sea level—hence the name “low island.” Low islands often take the shape of an irregular ring of very small islands, called an atoll, surrounding a lagoon. An atoll forms when a coral reef builds up around a volcanic island, then the volcanic island erodes away, leaving a lagoon. Atolls are defined as one island even though they are made up of multiple communities of coral.
Low islands are also called coral islands. They are made of the skeletons and living bodies of small marine animals called corals. Sometimes, coral islands barely reach above sea level—hence the name “low island.” Low islands often take the shape of an irregular ring of very small islands, called an atoll, surrounding a lagoon. An atoll forms when a coral reef builds up around a volcanic island, then the volcanic island erodes away, leaving a lagoon. Atolls are defined as one island even though they are made up of multiple communities of coral.
The island regions of Micronesia and Polynesia are dominated by low islands. The Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands, for example, is composed of 97 islands and islets that surround one of the largest lagoons in the world, with an area of 2,173 square kilometers (839 square miles). The nation of Kiribati is composed of 32 atolls and one solitary island dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometers (1.35 million square miles) of the Pacific Ocean.
10B- OCEANIA EARLY PERIOD
Ancient Voyaging & Settlement of the Pacific
By at least 10,000 years ago, humans had migrated to most of the habitable lands that could be reached on foot. What remained was the last frontier – the myriad islands of the Pacific Ocean that required boat technology and navigational methods be developed that were capable of long-range ocean voyaging. Near Oceania, which consists of mainland New Guinea and its surrounding islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Admiralty Islands, and the Solomon Islands was settled in an out-of-Africa migration c. 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene period. These first settlers of the Pacific are the ancestors of Melanesians and Australian Aboriginals. The small distances between the islands in Near Oceania meant that people could island-hop using rudimentary ocean-going craft.
By at least 10,000 years ago, humans had migrated to most of the habitable lands that could be reached on foot. What remained was the last frontier – the myriad islands of the Pacific Ocean that required boat technology and navigational methods be developed that were capable of long-range ocean voyaging. Near Oceania, which consists of mainland New Guinea and its surrounding islands, the Bismarck Archipelago, the Admiralty Islands, and the Solomon Islands was settled in an out-of-Africa migration c. 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene period. These first settlers of the Pacific are the ancestors of Melanesians and Australian Aboriginals. The small distances between the islands in Near Oceania meant that people could island-hop using rudimentary ocean-going craft.
The so-called second wave of migration into Remote Oceania has been an intensely debated scholarly topic. Remote Oceania is the islands to the east of the Solomon Islands group such as Vanuatu, Fiji, Tonga, Aotearoa (New Zealand), Society Islands, Easter Island, and the Marquesas. What is debated is the origins of the first people who settled in this region between 1500-1300 BCE, although there is general agreement that the ancestral homeland was Taiwan. A dissenting view has been that of Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl (1914-2002 CE) who set out in 1947 CE on a balsa raft called Kon-Tiki that he hoped would prove a South American origin for Pacific islanders. Archaeological and DNA evidence, however, points strongly to a southeast Asian origin and seafarers who spoke a related group of languages known as Austronesian who reached Fiji in 1300 BCE and Samoa c. 1100 BCE. All modern Polynesian languages belong to the Austronesian language family.
Collectively, these people are called the Lapita and were the ancestors of the Polynesians, including Maori, although archaeologists use the term Lapita Cultural Complex because the Lapita were not a homogenous group. They were, however, skilled seafarers who introduced outriggers and double canoes, which made longer voyages across the Pacific possible, and their distinctive pottery – Lapita ware – appeared in the Bismarck Archipelago as early as 2000 BCE. Lapita pottery included bowls and dishes with complex geometric patterns impressed into clay by small toothed stamps.
Between c. 1100-900 BCE, there was a rapid expansion of Lapita culture in a south-east direction across the Pacific, and this raises the question of intentional migration.
10C: OCEAN MIGRATION
The geographic area in Remote Oceania called the Polynesian triangle encompasses Aotearoa, Hawaii, and Easter Island as its corners and includes more than 1,000 islands. Between some of the islands in this triangle, there are distances of more than 1,000 kilometres (621 miles). Northern Vanuatu to Fiji, for example, is more than 800 kilometres (497 miles), and it would have taken tremendous skill and courage to sail in a canoe or outrigger for five to six weeks towards a hoped-for destination.
Indigenous Navigation Techniques
Unfortunately, most of the traditional Polynesian navigation knowledge has been lost for several reasons:
- Most European explorers were skeptical of indigenous seafaring skills, and this was rooted in the deep sense of technological superiority of the Western narrative of the time.
- Indigenous navigational knowledge was an oral tradition. It was not recorded systematically, and it was also considered secret knowledge, known only to certain families and fiercely guarded.
- European sailing techniques became dominant.
In traditional Maori oral history, Kupe is a legendary figure and explorer of the Pacific Ocean (Te Moana-nui-a-Kiwa) who set off from Hawaiiki in c. 1300 CE in a waka (canoe) to discover what lay over the horizon. Hawaiiki is the ancestral homeland of Maori and is thought to be in the East Polynesian islands. Kupe's navigator, Reti, followed a star path to hold the waka on course until it reached landfall in Whangaroa on the North Island of Aotearoa. There are several versions of the legend of Kupe, some involving Kupe chasing a giant octopus (Te Wheke-o-Muturangi) to the shores of Aotearoa, but what this aruruwow contains are references to stars, wind patterns, and currents that were memorised by generations of navigators.
Stars, Seas, Winds, Birds
The Polynesians knew the language of the stars. They had a highly developed navigation system that involved not only observation of the stars as they rose and crossed the night sky, but the memorisation of entire sky charts. Throughout the Pacific, island navigators taught young men the skills acquired over generations. Navigational knowledge was a closely guarded secret within a navigator family, and education started at an early age. In Kiribati, for example, lessons were taught in the maneaba (meeting house) where rafters and beams were sectioned off to correspond to a segment of the night sky. The position of each star at sunrise and sunset and the star paths between islands were etched into memory. Stones and shells were placed on mats or in the sand to teach star-lore. Karakia (prayer) and oral stories contained references to navigation instructions. Te Ika-roa, for example, meant the Milky Way; Atua-tahi is Canopus; Tawera is Venus the morning star; Meremere is Venus the evening star. The following are navigational instructions from Kupe:
When you go, lay the bow of the canoe to the Cloud Pillar that lies south-west. When night falls, steer towards the star Atua-tahi. Hold to the left of Mangaroa and travel on. Whey day breaks, again sail towards the Cloud Pillar and continue on. (Quoted in Evans, 49)
The Polynesians knew the language of the stars. They had a highly developed navigation system that involved not only observation of the stars as they rose and crossed the night sky, but the memorisation of entire sky charts. Throughout the Pacific, island navigators taught young men the skills acquired over generations. Navigational knowledge was a closely guarded secret within a navigator family, and education started at an early age. In Kiribati, for example, lessons were taught in the maneaba (meeting house) where rafters and beams were sectioned off to correspond to a segment of the night sky. The position of each star at sunrise and sunset and the star paths between islands were etched into memory. Stones and shells were placed on mats or in the sand to teach star-lore. Karakia (prayer) and oral stories contained references to navigation instructions. Te Ika-roa, for example, meant the Milky Way; Atua-tahi is Canopus; Tawera is Venus the morning star; Meremere is Venus the evening star. The following are navigational instructions from Kupe:
When you go, lay the bow of the canoe to the Cloud Pillar that lies south-west. When night falls, steer towards the star Atua-tahi. Hold to the left of Mangaroa and travel on. Whey day breaks, again sail towards the Cloud Pillar and continue on. (Quoted in Evans, 49)
Steering by the stars was the most accurate technique because the points on the horizon where stars rise remains the same throughout the year, even though stars rise earlier each night. A series of ten to twelve stars – a star path - were sufficient to guide the navigator. The star path from Tikopia (part of the Solomon Islands group) to Anuta (the easternmost island in the Solomons), for example, has nine stars.
Indigenous navigators required deep knowledge of the movement of the stars through the night sky. A rising star cuts the horizon at a low point, but can only be used as a positioning reference for a certain time before it has risen too high, and the next star to rise is then used to keep the craft on course. By day or when the night was cloudy, canoes were steered by a combination of techniques. The navigator sat on the left-hand side, towards the rear and would sometimes lie down to feel the swell and movement of the ocean. Waves are shorter and steeper and have a breaking crest closer to land, whereas out to sea, waves are felt as a slow undulation. Reading the surface of the ocean was a visual aid navigators relied on to estimate the sideways drift of the waka. The white caps of waves indicate the strength of a mid-ocean current. If a wave is travelling in the same direction as the wind, for example, but the current is flowing against it, the wave will appear to be steep. Swell piloting was used as the solution to strong and shifting currents.
Further techniques were:
- Observing the color and formation of clouds. A V-shaped cloud is sometimes seen over an island, and indigenous navigators knew that a dark under-belly to a cloud was reflected vegetation whilst a whitish underside indicated sand or coral reefs.
- Observing the regular migration of birds or their flocking patterns. Fairy terns, for instance, fly no farther than 20-30 nautical miles (35-55 kilometres) from land.
- Observing bioluminescence. Living sea organisms emit light that appears as streaks and flashes. Navigators from the Santa Cruz Islands referred to bioluminescence as te lapa or underwater lightning that acts as a compass towards land. Close to land, the movement of flashes is fast and generally indicates the canoe is 128-160 kilometres (80-100 miles) from land.
Voyaging Canoes & Sails
Polynesians mariners developed the double-hulled canoe (also called a catamaran). Some of their voyaging canoes were longer than Cook's Endeavour, which was approximately 30 metres (98 feet), although the average length for the canoes was 15.2-22.8 metres (50-75 feet). Canoes with an outrigger on one side were favoured in Micronesia (western Pacific region). The carrying capacity of the vessels was considerable. A Tongan double canoe could carry 80-100 people, while a Marquesan outrigger equipped for fishing or war could take 40-50 people.
Polynesians mariners developed the double-hulled canoe (also called a catamaran). Some of their voyaging canoes were longer than Cook's Endeavour, which was approximately 30 metres (98 feet), although the average length for the canoes was 15.2-22.8 metres (50-75 feet). Canoes with an outrigger on one side were favoured in Micronesia (western Pacific region). The carrying capacity of the vessels was considerable. A Tongan double canoe could carry 80-100 people, while a Marquesan outrigger equipped for fishing or war could take 40-50 people.
Long-distance craft were sturdy planked vessels lashed together with braided sennit or twisted coconut fibre. Caulking material such as breadfruit tree gum made them seaworthy. Different types of canoes were used throughout Polynesia and Micronesia, but the three main types were the pahi, the tongiaki, and the ndrua. The pahi was a Tahitian two-hulled, two-masted vessel; the tongiaki from Tonga was a double canoe with triangular sails that was mistaken for a barque by the Dutch captain William Schoeten (c. 1567-1625 CE); and the ndrua was the double canoe with unequal hulls used in Fiji. Polynesian sails were the apex-down triangular sail; claw-shaped or crab-claw sails; and the lateen or triangular sail secured to two long booms. Sails were usually made from woven pandanus leaves.
9D- CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Australia
Australia’s population is more than 18 million. 97% of the population is Europeans and their English-Australian descendants, and only about 2% is indigenous Aboriginal (“World Population prospects,” 2020).
Aboriginal spiritual life is extremely complex. One of its most essential aspects is totemism. It is the belief in special sacred bonds between a group of people and any object of surrounding nature – most often a species of animal or plant. Aboriginal people do not recognize the inevitable death of a person (Oliver, 1989). According to their beliefs, the souls of the dead return to the place where they came from – to totemic centers and can eventually become people again. Such ideas are contained in religious consciousness in science called reincarnation.
The birth of a baby, according to Aboriginal people, does not yet mean the appearance of a person. It is possible to become a person thoroughly only after the rites of initiation. During these rites, the boys are subjected to physical endurance tests. They are also introduced to sacred myths (stories, legends about the world, its origin, and its heroes). Boys receive real male names and unique signs of dedication on their bodies in the form of scars on the skin, bred front teeth, and others.
A central place in the life of Australians was occupied by public entertainment – celebrations with dances and songs, so-called corroboree (D’Arcy, 2017). Australians have also created rich folklore and traditions. In addition to totemic myths, there were also stories about the origin of certain customs, as well as fairy tales, which included animals, skylights, and forces of nature. The painting of Australians, which depicted mainly animals and hunting scenes, is very expressive. It is unique to receive an image of an animal with translucent internal organs and skeleton. Love for ornaments found expression in body painting and wearing masks during rite ceremonies and corroboree.
Australia’s population is more than 18 million. 97% of the population is Europeans and their English-Australian descendants, and only about 2% is indigenous Aboriginal (“World Population prospects,” 2020).
Aboriginal spiritual life is extremely complex. One of its most essential aspects is totemism. It is the belief in special sacred bonds between a group of people and any object of surrounding nature – most often a species of animal or plant. Aboriginal people do not recognize the inevitable death of a person (Oliver, 1989). According to their beliefs, the souls of the dead return to the place where they came from – to totemic centers and can eventually become people again. Such ideas are contained in religious consciousness in science called reincarnation.
The birth of a baby, according to Aboriginal people, does not yet mean the appearance of a person. It is possible to become a person thoroughly only after the rites of initiation. During these rites, the boys are subjected to physical endurance tests. They are also introduced to sacred myths (stories, legends about the world, its origin, and its heroes). Boys receive real male names and unique signs of dedication on their bodies in the form of scars on the skin, bred front teeth, and others.
A central place in the life of Australians was occupied by public entertainment – celebrations with dances and songs, so-called corroboree (D’Arcy, 2017). Australians have also created rich folklore and traditions. In addition to totemic myths, there were also stories about the origin of certain customs, as well as fairy tales, which included animals, skylights, and forces of nature. The painting of Australians, which depicted mainly animals and hunting scenes, is very expressive. It is unique to receive an image of an animal with translucent internal organs and skeleton. Love for ornaments found expression in body painting and wearing masks during rite ceremonies and corroboree.
Melanesia
Melanesia in science is allocated to the special subregion mainly because of the racial criterion: its name – in ancient Greek “black islands” – indicates the dark tone of the skin of the inhabitants.
The primary type of traditional livelihood is hand farming: the population grows yams, cassava, coconut palm, banana, and other cultures. An ax, a tether knife, a simple stick were used to treat the ground (Oliver, 1989). It was enough as the land was always moistened with rain. However, irrigation farming was used in some areas. They are engaged in fishing, harvesting shellfish. They breed dogs, cats, chickens, pigs, some sheep, and the most important animal – a pig. Among the traditional crafts are the manufacture of boats, pottery, the braiding mats.
Melanesians created vibrant ornamental art. It was expressed in wood and bone carving, tool decorations. Usually, an ornament is a stylized image of birds, fish, a human figure, and a face. Another aspect of their culture – dancing imitating fighting or movements during work – was the main content of folk celebrations, which were accompanied by expressive music on drums, flutes, and shells.
Melanesia in science is allocated to the special subregion mainly because of the racial criterion: its name – in ancient Greek “black islands” – indicates the dark tone of the skin of the inhabitants.
The primary type of traditional livelihood is hand farming: the population grows yams, cassava, coconut palm, banana, and other cultures. An ax, a tether knife, a simple stick were used to treat the ground (Oliver, 1989). It was enough as the land was always moistened with rain. However, irrigation farming was used in some areas. They are engaged in fishing, harvesting shellfish. They breed dogs, cats, chickens, pigs, some sheep, and the most important animal – a pig. Among the traditional crafts are the manufacture of boats, pottery, the braiding mats.
Melanesians created vibrant ornamental art. It was expressed in wood and bone carving, tool decorations. Usually, an ornament is a stylized image of birds, fish, a human figure, and a face. Another aspect of their culture – dancing imitating fighting or movements during work – was the main content of folk celebrations, which were accompanied by expressive music on drums, flutes, and shells.
Polynesia
In language, Polynesians make up one group. Despite the big distances separating the archipelago, the dialects of their population differ only in small phonetic features. The entire Polynesian group of languages is related to the languages of the peoples of Indonesia. Polynesian society has been divided into castes in the past.
Despite the islands’ limited natural resources, particularly the lack of metals, Polynesians managed to create a relatively high culture. The main traditional economic activities are tropical farming, sometimes using fertilizers and artificial irrigation (cultivation of yams, bread tree, bananas, sweet potato, and others). The most crucial job was fishing; for example, Kiribati hunted sharks and octopuses.
The concept of polytheism defines the religion of Polynesians. They worshiped a large number (several hundred) of gods, but the main gods on almost all the islands of Polynesia are the next four: the solar god, god of war, god patron of farming, and god creator of Earth and humans (Oliver, 1989). The whole surrounding world in the representation of Polynesians was divided into two categories: moa (sacred) and noa (simple). Everything relating to moa is considered to belong to gods, kings, nobles, and priests, so it is declared forbidden for ordinary people, subject to taboo.
In language, Polynesians make up one group. Despite the big distances separating the archipelago, the dialects of their population differ only in small phonetic features. The entire Polynesian group of languages is related to the languages of the peoples of Indonesia. Polynesian society has been divided into castes in the past.
Despite the islands’ limited natural resources, particularly the lack of metals, Polynesians managed to create a relatively high culture. The main traditional economic activities are tropical farming, sometimes using fertilizers and artificial irrigation (cultivation of yams, bread tree, bananas, sweet potato, and others). The most crucial job was fishing; for example, Kiribati hunted sharks and octopuses.
The concept of polytheism defines the religion of Polynesians. They worshiped a large number (several hundred) of gods, but the main gods on almost all the islands of Polynesia are the next four: the solar god, god of war, god patron of farming, and god creator of Earth and humans (Oliver, 1989). The whole surrounding world in the representation of Polynesians was divided into two categories: moa (sacred) and noa (simple). Everything relating to moa is considered to belong to gods, kings, nobles, and priests, so it is declared forbidden for ordinary people, subject to taboo.
Micronesia
Natural conditions, poor resources were not beneficial for the development of a wealthy economy. Only the ocean could give a lot, and on the islands grew mainly palm trees, bamboo, and pandanus (Oliver, 1989). For this reason, fishing and shipbuilding occupied an essential place in the life of the islanders. There were boats of different types: sailing, large rowing boats, catamarans, etc. Sails were made of the pandanus’s leaves. In Palau and the Yap Islands, canoes and bamboo rafts were used. For a sea trip, one atoll could shell up to 80 boats.
A notable feature of the traditional culture of the peoples of Micronesia is the significant development of exchange relations, the means of which were primitive money in the form of shells, circles from turtle shells, mats. The unusual stone money of Yap Islands, which are disks of different diameters with a hole in the center, was especially popular (Lilley, 2017). There are still giant (up to 3 m or more in diameter) stone discs that can be seen in many villages of the island. Most valued was the money made on Guam Island and brought from there. In the past, such money was possessed not by individuals, but by large kinship groups, men’s unions, and communities.
Natural conditions, poor resources were not beneficial for the development of a wealthy economy. Only the ocean could give a lot, and on the islands grew mainly palm trees, bamboo, and pandanus (Oliver, 1989). For this reason, fishing and shipbuilding occupied an essential place in the life of the islanders. There were boats of different types: sailing, large rowing boats, catamarans, etc. Sails were made of the pandanus’s leaves. In Palau and the Yap Islands, canoes and bamboo rafts were used. For a sea trip, one atoll could shell up to 80 boats.
A notable feature of the traditional culture of the peoples of Micronesia is the significant development of exchange relations, the means of which were primitive money in the form of shells, circles from turtle shells, mats. The unusual stone money of Yap Islands, which are disks of different diameters with a hole in the center, was especially popular (Lilley, 2017). There are still giant (up to 3 m or more in diameter) stone discs that can be seen in many villages of the island. Most valued was the money made on Guam Island and brought from there. In the past, such money was possessed not by individuals, but by large kinship groups, men’s unions, and communities.
Tattoos
Special attention in Oceania’s culture is paid to tattoos. When Europeans first met Oceania’s indigenous people, they were struck by the openness of their clothing. The body of the Oceanian was open so that tattoos could be read on it. Tattoos depicted all the attributes and achievements of the social life of their owner: marital status, occupation, number of children or, even number of beheaded enemies (Oliver, 1989). Today, Oceanic tattoos are famous worldwide among lovers of this art, who specifically visit remote islands in the heart of the Pacific Ocean for exotic drawing.
Special attention in Oceania’s culture is paid to tattoos. When Europeans first met Oceania’s indigenous people, they were struck by the openness of their clothing. The body of the Oceanian was open so that tattoos could be read on it. Tattoos depicted all the attributes and achievements of the social life of their owner: marital status, occupation, number of children or, even number of beheaded enemies (Oliver, 1989). Today, Oceanic tattoos are famous worldwide among lovers of this art, who specifically visit remote islands in the heart of the Pacific Ocean for exotic drawing.
Mana
The concept of mana was predominantly spread among Polynesians and Melanesians. Besides, it was associated with ancestor cults and cannibalism that were practiced throughout Oceania before the arrival of Europeans. People ate people, not for the taste or replenishment of protein deficiency, but for the desire to increase their own weight in the maternity community, which was marked by the concept of “mana.” It is some kind of life force, able to pass not only from generation to generation or be distributed among relatives through committing rites of veneration of ancestors, but also to give from one stranger to another – by its literal absorption (Oliver, 1989). Mana can both accumulate and evaporate. The owner of strong mana is a leader who enjoys a unique position among the breeders. And the more his mana, the more he evokes reverence from his fellow tribesmen. Now the concept of mana is more related to personal authority and character.
The concept of mana was predominantly spread among Polynesians and Melanesians. Besides, it was associated with ancestor cults and cannibalism that were practiced throughout Oceania before the arrival of Europeans. People ate people, not for the taste or replenishment of protein deficiency, but for the desire to increase their own weight in the maternity community, which was marked by the concept of “mana.” It is some kind of life force, able to pass not only from generation to generation or be distributed among relatives through committing rites of veneration of ancestors, but also to give from one stranger to another – by its literal absorption (Oliver, 1989). Mana can both accumulate and evaporate. The owner of strong mana is a leader who enjoys a unique position among the breeders. And the more his mana, the more he evokes reverence from his fellow tribesmen. Now the concept of mana is more related to personal authority and character.