CHAPTER 8: EUROPE'S MIDDLE AGES
8A- THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH IN MEDIEVAL SOCIETY
The Roman Catholic Church was immensely important in medieval society. Many would argue that it was actually the most important factor in people’s lives. This could be seen even in the way that towns and cities were laid out, with the church at the center. Usually, the church steeple was also the highest building in the city, showing that nothing else was more important.
As the center of society, the Church was very powerful and took in a lot of money. People paid a tax called a tithe to the church, representing 10% of their income. The Church used this wealth to influence politics. In fact, the upper levels of the Catholic Church, such as the Pope at the top, were often more powerful than Europe's monarchs. This meant that kings and lords listened to the opinions of the Church when they made decisions, allowing the Church to influence what happened in different regions throughout Europe
In addition to being wealthy and powerful, the Church played an important role in preserving Greco-Roman culture (Greco-Roman refers to the cultures of classical Greece and Rome). The most important thing the Church did to preserve Greco-Roman culture was to safeguard and copy ancient manuscripts and works of art.
This was usually done by monks living in monasteries who copied out entire books by hand. Some of the writings that have been preserved include important religious writings such as scripture and the works of the church fathers. However, secular writing such as works by Cicero and Aristotle were also preserved. This work was especially important when life and learning were interrupted by Barbarian invasions.
|
The church of course played an important role in ordinary people’s everyday lives. Most people didn’t interact with the upper levels of the Church (unless they were in the nobility). Instead, ordinary people interacted with their local priest. Priests were generally not wealthy (unlike the Pope) and lived humble lives taking care of the villages and communities where they lived. This meant that the priest and local church were often looked to as the source of education and spiritual guidance, and even things like taking care of the sick. In a sense, local churches were like schools, hospitals, and community centers rolled into one, serving all the needs of their community.
8B- THE MANOR SYSTEM
The Manor System refers to a system of agricultural estates in the Middle Ages, owned by a Lord and run by serfs or peasants. The Lords provided safety and protection from outside threats and the serfs or peasants provided labor to run the manor.
How did the manor provide protection? The Lords were usually also military leaders. Because they had serfs to run their estates for them they were able to focus on their battle tactics and military strengths so they could lead men in defense of the manor should the need arise.
The Three-Field System
A key component of the Manor System, the three-field system was a method of crop rotation designed to maximize the amount of food the manor produced. The fields were used for different purposes and were rotated each year. The rotation allowed the fields to regain nutrients needed for crops to grow.
A key component of the Manor System, the three-field system was a method of crop rotation designed to maximize the amount of food the manor produced. The fields were used for different purposes and were rotated each year. The rotation allowed the fields to regain nutrients needed for crops to grow.
The first field would be planted with winter crops such as rye and wheat. The second field would be planted with spring crops such as peas and beans. And the third field would lie fallow, meaning nothing was planted in it that year, allowing the field to rest.
Mill
Located within the manor would often be a mill used to grind wheat and other grains to make flour. The mill was located along a stream or river because they ran on water power (picture an old-fashioned water wheel). As the wheel turned, the grain was ground by large stones. Manor House
The Manor House was a large, elaborate house where the Lord and his family lived. Sometimes this was an actual castle! The bigger the manor house was and the more powerful the Lord, the more protection it offered against threats and other invasions. Church
The church was a very important part of life in the middle ages. Almost everyone practiced Christianity and both the serfs and the Lord and his family would attend church in the village. The church also collected tithes, which is a 10% tax on a person’s income. This made the church very wealthy and powerful. Village
The village would be located near the manor and was where most people (other than Lords and their families) lived. This often included the serfs, who lived in the village in small houses and worked during the day at the manor |
8C- THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
Feudalism emerged in response to the need for governments to be able to protect their subjects. The system worked because lower classes agreed to serve upper classes in exchange for protection. When the system ran smoothly, it led to peace and prosperity for everyone. Above all, the king relied on the system to enable him to run the land smoothly.
The King
At the very top of the feudal system was the king. He presided over the land he ruled, directing and controlling what happened in his kingdom. But, in an age before computers and phones, how could the king actually manage a vast kingdom? Good question. Answer: Nobility and Knights.
At the very top of the feudal system was the king. He presided over the land he ruled, directing and controlling what happened in his kingdom. But, in an age before computers and phones, how could the king actually manage a vast kingdom? Good question. Answer: Nobility and Knights.
Nobility
The King divided his kingdom among the nobility, the richest and most powerful families in the realm. Each noble operated a particular portion of the kingdom, overseeing and governing it. In exchange for the power the nobles got over the local population, they pledged their loyalty to the King. Part of that loyalty meant a willingness to raise a local army should the King call for it. (In those days, armies were localized and ordinary men took up arms at the command of their local nobility).
The King divided his kingdom among the nobility, the richest and most powerful families in the realm. Each noble operated a particular portion of the kingdom, overseeing and governing it. In exchange for the power the nobles got over the local population, they pledged their loyalty to the King. Part of that loyalty meant a willingness to raise a local army should the King call for it. (In those days, armies were localized and ordinary men took up arms at the command of their local nobility).
Knights and Vassals
Even the land of the nobility was divided up into smaller parcels run by knights or vassals. Both of these groups traded military support for land in the local manors. As higher ranking people, knights often presided over an entire manor, while vassals presided only over the land needed to support their families. In both cases, the knights and vassals had command over the serfs that worked the land. In exchange for this control, they promised to fight in defense of the lord and the king if needed.
Even the land of the nobility was divided up into smaller parcels run by knights or vassals. Both of these groups traded military support for land in the local manors. As higher ranking people, knights often presided over an entire manor, while vassals presided only over the land needed to support their families. In both cases, the knights and vassals had command over the serfs that worked the land. In exchange for this control, they promised to fight in defense of the lord and the king if needed.
Serfs
By far the largest category of people in the middle ages was the serfs. The serfs encompassed a majority of the population. Some serfs, such as cobblers, bakers, coopers, or blacksmiths, had relative freedom and even owned their own homes or businesses. Most, however, lived a very hard life and were almost like slaves. They were tied to the land they worked and didn’t own anything. They barely made enough to survive and were often hungry.
By far the largest category of people in the middle ages was the serfs. The serfs encompassed a majority of the population. Some serfs, such as cobblers, bakers, coopers, or blacksmiths, had relative freedom and even owned their own homes or businesses. Most, however, lived a very hard life and were almost like slaves. They were tied to the land they worked and didn’t own anything. They barely made enough to survive and were often hungry.
8D- KNIGHTS AND CHIVALRY
What is Chivalry?
Chivalry is an ideal system of behavior that was influenced by the Church and gradually formed during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. It represented a code of honor and ethics, or moral virtues, that knights swore to live by. These included bravery in combat, religious piety, and manners for behaving in court. Can you think of an example of chivalry that you’ve seen? Pages
There were three stages to becoming a knight and the first one was to be a page. The process of becoming a knight was only available to the nobility and they had to start training early. By the age of seven or eight, young boys were sent to be trained by the families of other nobles. During this first stage of training, the boys served as pages, meaning they acted as a servant for a knight. In exchange for education and training, pages served all of a knight’s needs. Squires
The second stage of training was to be a squire. This was when the boy learned how to handle weapons properly, as well as how to fight, hunt, joust, and ride a horse. These were critical skills that would be needed in the life of a knight and the training lasted throughout a boy’s teenage years. Knights
By the age of 21, when a squire had mastered all of the skills necessary, he was ready to be dubbed a knight. This took place in a formal ceremony led by the knight’s sponsor. The dubbing was a ceremonial tapping three times on the shoulders with a sword blade and officially made the young man a knight. After that, he returned home where he practiced his fighting skills in battle and by jousting. |
8E- EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES
When you think of school today, you probably think of going to school Monday through Friday in a building separate from your house (though of course, some folks are homeschooled). You spend most of the day at school, learning about subjects such as science, math, English, and history. You probably also enjoy some breaks for recess or sports. This is your experience for most of childhood, from ages five through 18.
In the Middle Ages, this was not the case. Only the wealthy had access to education, and then usually only for boys. There were no public schools, and those who had the privilege of getting an education usually either learned at home with a tutor or from a school run by the church. Because of this, religion informed every subject that students learned. Some of the things that students learned then we might consider to be superstitions today.
What did students study in the middle ages? All kinds of things! Just like today they learned math and grammar (or, the study of language) as well as music, art, and science. And, they played sports like archery, hammer-throwing, horseshoes, and wrestling.
Unlike today, most subjects centered around theology (or, the study of religion). There were also colleges and universities in the middle ages. Though, very few students got to attend, unlike today.
|
And remember all the wars and invasions of the middle ages? Students would sometimes have their learning interrupted by social upheaval. It’s pretty hard to keep learning when there’s a war going on! Today, students are protected from the political changes around them and schools are able to keep operating like normal.
8F- IMPORTANT MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES
A vast number of roads were built across the Roman Empire. With its downfall, trade across these advanced roads did decline. However, trade eventually rose again across a wider array of trade routes that crossed continents and resulted in goods and ideas being shared with diverse people across the globe.
One of the most important trade routes of the Middle Ages was the Silk Road. This network of trade routes connected East Asia and Southeast Asia with South Asia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, East Africa and Southern Europe. It was central to the economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between these regions from the 2nd century BCE to the 18th century.
|
The Silk Road gets its name from the lucrative trade in silk carried out along it, beginning in the Han dynasty in China (207 BCE–220 CE). The Han dynasty expanded the Central Asian section of the trade routes through military conquests. The Chinese took great interest in the security of their trade products, and extended the Great Wall of China to ensure the protection of the trade route. By the Umayyad era (661–750 CE), Damascus became a major trade center. The Abbasid dynasty began building Baghdad in 762, which became the most important city along the silk road. The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road. Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes, trade circulated throughout the region, though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle.
The Silk Road trade played a significant role in the development of the civilizations it connected and the political and economic relations between them. Though silk was the major trade item exported from China, many other goods and ideas were exchanged, including religions (especially Buddhism), sciences, and technologies like paper and gunpowder.
The Gold-Salt Trade was conducted by caravans of camels across the Sahara Desert. According to Ibn Battuta, the explorer who accompanied one of the caravans, the average size per caravan was 1,000 camels; some caravans were as large as 12,000. The caravans would be guided by highly paid Berbers who knew the desert and could ensure safe passage from their fellow desert nomads. The survival of a caravan was precarious and would rely on careful coordination. Runners would be sent ahead to oases so that water could be shipped out to the caravan when it was still several days away, as the caravans could not easily carry enough with them to make the full journey.
|
The West African Kingdom of Ghana became a major trading center for the Gold-Salt Trade. With gold and salt being transported and traded through Ghana, the Kingdom of Ghana was able to become very wealthy by taxing the goods that came through the trade center. Other materials that were popular within trading in Ghana were ivory, horses, swords, spices, silks, and books from Europe. With the amount of protection on the trade routes and the large number of trade routes, Ghana was given the nickname The Gold Coast.
8G- THE CRUSADES
The Crusades were a series of holy wars in which Christians fought Muslims, attempting to regain land from the Muslims, including the Holy Land, and convert new followers to Christianity.
First Crusade
The First Crusade began in 1096, under the dominion of Pope Urban II. Bands of skilled noble warriors (remember the trained knights?) headed east toward the Holy Land. Most of the warriors came from France and before reaching the Holy Land they successfully conquered Anatolia. When they reached Jerusalem in 1099 there were approximately 10,000 soldiers! The city of Jerusalem was finally conquered after a deadly five-week siege and a horrible massacre of its inhabitants.
The First Crusade began in 1096, under the dominion of Pope Urban II. Bands of skilled noble warriors (remember the trained knights?) headed east toward the Holy Land. Most of the warriors came from France and before reaching the Holy Land they successfully conquered Anatolia. When they reached Jerusalem in 1099 there were approximately 10,000 soldiers! The city of Jerusalem was finally conquered after a deadly five-week siege and a horrible massacre of its inhabitants.
Second Crusade
At first, the Muslims were ineffective in fighting against the armored knights. But by the 1100s, they started to fight back. In 1144, Edessa became the first Christian state that the Seljuk Turks, a group of Muslims, reconquered. When Edessa was reconquered, Christians called for a Second Crusade to get it back. At the call of Pope Eugene III, both France and Germany sent troops (separately) for a Second Crusade. Unfortunately, both sets of troops were defeated miserably.
At first, the Muslims were ineffective in fighting against the armored knights. But by the 1100s, they started to fight back. In 1144, Edessa became the first Christian state that the Seljuk Turks, a group of Muslims, reconquered. When Edessa was reconquered, Christians called for a Second Crusade to get it back. At the call of Pope Eugene III, both France and Germany sent troops (separately) for a Second Crusade. Unfortunately, both sets of troops were defeated miserably.
Third Crusade
In 1187, a sultan named Saladin invaded the city of Jerusalem and retook it from the Christians. Unlike when the Christians in the First Crusade conquered Jerusalem, Saldin forbade the killing of civilians and for a time there was even trade between Christians and Muslims. Eventually, however, Christians called for a new Crusade to conquer Jerusalem back from the Muslims again. Three European countries -- Germany, England, and France -- sent soldiers to fight in the Third Crusade. Ultimately, the Christians regained part of the Holy Land but lost their fight to conquer Jerusalem. They did, however, negotiate a deal allowing Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem.
In 1187, a sultan named Saladin invaded the city of Jerusalem and retook it from the Christians. Unlike when the Christians in the First Crusade conquered Jerusalem, Saldin forbade the killing of civilians and for a time there was even trade between Christians and Muslims. Eventually, however, Christians called for a new Crusade to conquer Jerusalem back from the Muslims again. Three European countries -- Germany, England, and France -- sent soldiers to fight in the Third Crusade. Ultimately, the Christians regained part of the Holy Land but lost their fight to conquer Jerusalem. They did, however, negotiate a deal allowing Christian pilgrims access to Jerusalem.
Children’s Crusade
In 1212 a young German named Nicholas of Cologne said he was inspired by God to lead a Children’s Crusade to the Holy Land. The goal was for children to convert Muslims to Christianity through peaceful means. Thousands of young people joined Nicholas’s cause, though many turned back when the Pope urged them to go home. Unfortunately for those who journeyed to the Holy Land, most were eventually sold into slavery.
In 1212 a young German named Nicholas of Cologne said he was inspired by God to lead a Children’s Crusade to the Holy Land. The goal was for children to convert Muslims to Christianity through peaceful means. Thousands of young people joined Nicholas’s cause, though many turned back when the Pope urged them to go home. Unfortunately for those who journeyed to the Holy Land, most were eventually sold into slavery.
8H- THE BLACK DEATH
What was the black death?
The black death is also known as the Bubonic plague or black plague. It struck Europe in the mid-fourteenth century (mid-1300s). The black death was extremely contagious, but at the time people didn’t know how diseases spread, so they couldn’t figure out how to stop it. The black death was a very deadly disease and almost nobody who got sick from it survived. This made people even more afraid of it. How did it get to Europe?
At the time of the black death, Italy was the center of trade in the western world. Because Italy is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea and is at the crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa) they made a lot of money off of trade. Unfortunately, trade also brought the plague to Italy, and then to Europe. |
The plague came to Italy from Asia. For a long time people thought the plague was carried by rats that lived on trading ships. In reality, the plague was carried and transmitted by fleas that lived on the rats
Once the plague arrived in Italy, it traveled into the rest of Europe in a matter of weeks.
Once the plague arrived in Italy, it traveled into the rest of Europe in a matter of weeks.
How did doctors attempt to treat it?
Doctors did what they could to treat the black death, but they didn’t have the knowledge we have today. Doctors often wore long, pointy masks filled with herbs because they believed these would prevent them from catching the plague while treating their patients. For treatment, doctors rubbed herbs, onion, and even chopped up snakes on the boils that the black death caused. Herbs were often used to purify the air in houses where plague patients lived. To treat the fevers that the plague caused, doctors had patients sit close to fires or open sewers believing that would cause the fevers to break. Sick patients were told to drink vinegar and even to eat certain minerals, some of which (like mercury and arsenic) we now know to actually be toxic. |
What effect did it have on Europe?
Nobody was safe from the plague and rich and poor alike suffered tremendously. Between a third and a half of the population of Europe died from the black death. Because the plague was worse in cities, where people lived close together, many people tried to flee the cities to the countryside. This caused major social upheaval.
Some people even believed that the plague was a punishment from God. This caused some to attack non-Christians, especially Jews, and blame them for the black death happening.
Nobody was safe from the plague and rich and poor alike suffered tremendously. Between a third and a half of the population of Europe died from the black death. Because the plague was worse in cities, where people lived close together, many people tried to flee the cities to the countryside. This caused major social upheaval.
Some people even believed that the plague was a punishment from God. This caused some to attack non-Christians, especially Jews, and blame them for the black death happening.
8I- CHARLEMAGNE: KING OF THE FRANKS
Family and Becoming King
Charlemagne ruled the Frankish Kingdom (what is today parts of France, Germany, and surrounding lands) from 768 until his death in 814. He ruled as Holy Roman Emperor beginning in 800. He was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. When his father died in 768, a 20-year-old Charlemagne became King of the Franks alongside his brother Carloman I. When Carloman died a few years later in 771, Charlemagne became the sole ruler of the Franks.
Family and Becoming King
Charlemagne ruled the Frankish Kingdom (what is today parts of France, Germany, and surrounding lands) from 768 until his death in 814. He ruled as Holy Roman Emperor beginning in 800. He was the oldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon. When his father died in 768, a 20-year-old Charlemagne became King of the Franks alongside his brother Carloman I. When Carloman died a few years later in 771, Charlemagne became the sole ruler of the Franks.
Closer to home, Charlemagne sought to expand his empire into Saxony, which today is in northern Germany. However, Charlemagne faced a new challenge in Saxony: resistance to Christianity. His conquest of Saxony began in 773, prior to his becoming Holy Roman Emperor, but he was still a Christian King, and as such, he expected all of his subjects to follow the Christian faith as well. Saxony, however, remained pagan and resisted the spread of Christianity. While Saxony was officially conquered in 780, they periodically rebelled into the early 800s. Gradually, however, Saxon leaders converted to Christianity, eventually bringing peace to the region.
|
Crowned Holy Roman Emperor
Charlemagne’s father, Pepin, had already grown close to the Pope in Rome, and Charlemagne continued in his footsteps. Gradually, Rome began to rely on the protection of the powerful Frankish king, Charlemagne. In 799, Pope Leo III faced a rebellion and temporarily had to flee Rome. Where did he go for protection and help? You guessed it: Charlemagne. With Charlemagne’s help, the Pope regained control of Rome and Charlemagne visited him there in 800. In thanks for his help and protection, on Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III placed a crown on Charlemagne’s head and proclaimed him Holy Roman Emperor. This was the first time there had been a Holy Roman Emperor in more than 300 years. |
Government and Reforms
As was typical, Charlemagne’s realm was locally controlled by members of the nobility, who Charlemagne worked with. With numerous local rulers and an ever-expanding kingdom, Charlemagne had to take steps to make sure his kingdom appeared unified. He met regularly with his regional rulers and instituted a legal system that was consistent throughout his realm. Another of the steps he took was to institute a new system of money and taxes that applied to the entire Kingdom.
As was typical, Charlemagne’s realm was locally controlled by members of the nobility, who Charlemagne worked with. With numerous local rulers and an ever-expanding kingdom, Charlemagne had to take steps to make sure his kingdom appeared unified. He met regularly with his regional rulers and instituted a legal system that was consistent throughout his realm. Another of the steps he took was to institute a new system of money and taxes that applied to the entire Kingdom.
Charlemagne loved both education and religion, and wanted his people to share these passions. In addition to working with the Pope and strengthening the Christian church in his kingdom, he encouraged the production of books and the translation of religious works from Latin to the vernacular (the everyday language people speak).
Charlemagne ruled most of central Europe, from the North Sea to Italy, and from Spain to Austria. He unified his realm politically and religiously, and became the first Holy Roman Emperor in more than 300 years.