CHAPTER 5- THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
5A- WHY THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGAN IN ENGLAND
The Industrial Revolution was the transition from small cottage industries in which goods were primarily made by hand to new mass-produced goods in factories using steam and water power.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain around 1760 and many of the technological innovations were of British origin. Textiles were the dominant industry of the early Industrial Revolution. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in history and almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way.
There are several important reasons why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain.
Inventions and Innovations
One of the most important reasons the Industrial Revolution began in England was that many of the most important inventions and innovations that powered the revolution were created there.
Initial developments occurred in the cotton industry with the development of the spinning jenny, water frame, and spinning mule.
One of the most important reasons the Industrial Revolution began in England was that many of the most important inventions and innovations that powered the revolution were created there.
Initial developments occurred in the cotton industry with the development of the spinning jenny, water frame, and spinning mule.
The spinning jenny was invented in England in 1764 by James Hargreaves. The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work 8 or more spools at once.
Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered water frame, which produced stronger yarn than that of the spinning jenny.
Samuel Crompton combined them to create the spinning mule, a machine that revolutionized the industry worldwide. The mule was the most common spinning machine from 1790 until about 1900 and was used for fine yarns as late as the 1980s.
James Watt developed perhaps the most important invention of the era with his steam engine. He improved on Thomas Newcomen’s 1712 steam engine with his design in 1776. This engine was more powerful and efficient and was soon powering machines in factories as well as steamships at sea and locomotives on rails.
Other industries also benefited from industrialization. Innovations included a new steel making processes by Henry Bessemer, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, and other advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.
Richard Arkwright invented the water-powered water frame, which produced stronger yarn than that of the spinning jenny.
Samuel Crompton combined them to create the spinning mule, a machine that revolutionized the industry worldwide. The mule was the most common spinning machine from 1790 until about 1900 and was used for fine yarns as late as the 1980s.
James Watt developed perhaps the most important invention of the era with his steam engine. He improved on Thomas Newcomen’s 1712 steam engine with his design in 1776. This engine was more powerful and efficient and was soon powering machines in factories as well as steamships at sea and locomotives on rails.
Other industries also benefited from industrialization. Innovations included a new steel making processes by Henry Bessemer, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, and other advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.
An Agricultural Revolution
England had been an agricultural nation for centuries. Crop rotation techniques had improved over that period allowing soil to remain more fertile and growing outputs increased. Farmers also experimented with livestock breeding by allowing only their largest animals to breed. This resulted in larger, healthier cattle and lamb.
In the 1700’s, wealthy landowners bought up smaller farms and enclosed their larger lands with fences. This enclosure movement led to more productive farming and greater crop yields, but also displaced many small farmers. Often, these men and women moved to cities to work in the new factories.
England had been an agricultural nation for centuries. Crop rotation techniques had improved over that period allowing soil to remain more fertile and growing outputs increased. Farmers also experimented with livestock breeding by allowing only their largest animals to breed. This resulted in larger, healthier cattle and lamb.
In the 1700’s, wealthy landowners bought up smaller farms and enclosed their larger lands with fences. This enclosure movement led to more productive farming and greater crop yields, but also displaced many small farmers. Often, these men and women moved to cities to work in the new factories.
Natural Resources
Another major reason why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain was that it had an abundant supply of what economists call the three "factors of production". These factors of production are land, labor, and capital. These describe the inputs used in the production of goods or services in order to make an economic profit.
Land in this sense is not just open land for industry to build on. It also means the natural resources needed for industrialization. Coal was needed in vast quantities for the Industrial Revolution to fuel steam engines and furnaces. Iron ore was necessary for machines, buildings, and bridges. England had an abundance of both as well has rivers for inland transportation.
Labor represents a large workforce for the industries. With a booming population from higher food production and the enclosure movement pushing people to cities, England’s industries had more than enough workers. Finally, capitol is the money needed to fund industry. Great Britain's well-developed banking system allowed for loans to invest in industries to help them succeed.
Another major reason why the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain was that it had an abundant supply of what economists call the three "factors of production". These factors of production are land, labor, and capital. These describe the inputs used in the production of goods or services in order to make an economic profit.
Land in this sense is not just open land for industry to build on. It also means the natural resources needed for industrialization. Coal was needed in vast quantities for the Industrial Revolution to fuel steam engines and furnaces. Iron ore was necessary for machines, buildings, and bridges. England had an abundance of both as well has rivers for inland transportation.
Labor represents a large workforce for the industries. With a booming population from higher food production and the enclosure movement pushing people to cities, England’s industries had more than enough workers. Finally, capitol is the money needed to fund industry. Great Britain's well-developed banking system allowed for loans to invest in industries to help them succeed.
A Stable Government and Economy
Finally, the Industrial Revolution flourished in Great Britain for political reasons. While England was often at war, all of these conflicts took place outside of the country. As a result, life in the country was relatively peaceful.
The last major political upheaval was the Glorious Revolution in 1688. A period of peace and stability followed when other nations were undergoing revolutions or political changes.
Additionally, the political system of England encouraged trade and entrepreneurship. A straightforward legal system allowed the formation of joint-stock companies, enforced property rights, and respected patents for inventions.
Finally, the Industrial Revolution flourished in Great Britain for political reasons. While England was often at war, all of these conflicts took place outside of the country. As a result, life in the country was relatively peaceful.
The last major political upheaval was the Glorious Revolution in 1688. A period of peace and stability followed when other nations were undergoing revolutions or political changes.
Additionally, the political system of England encouraged trade and entrepreneurship. A straightforward legal system allowed the formation of joint-stock companies, enforced property rights, and respected patents for inventions.
The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on England
The Industrial Revolution led to an unprecedented population growth. England's population grew 280% between 1550 and 1820. The rest of Western Europe only grew 50-80%.
Additionally, Great Britain became the world’s leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with political influence on the Indian subcontinent.
The Industrial Revolution led to an unprecedented population growth. England's population grew 280% between 1550 and 1820. The rest of Western Europe only grew 50-80%.
Additionally, Great Britain became the world’s leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with colonies in North America and the Caribbean, and with political influence on the Indian subcontinent.
5B- THE FACTORY SYSTEM
During the Industrial Revolution, family-based cottage-industries were displaced by the factory system, a method of manufacturing using machinery and the division of labor.
The factory system was first adopted in Great Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700's. It would later spread around the world. The main characteristic of the factory system is the use of machinery, originally powered by water or steam and later by electricity. The factory system began widespread when cotton spinning was mechanized. Raw cotton would be brought to the factory and spun, bleached, dyed, and woven into finished cloth.
Richard Arkwright is the person credited with being the brains behind the growth of factories. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill in England. His water frame was powered by a water wheel and was too large to house in a worker's cottage. Arkwright's water frame could spin 96 threads at a time, a faster method than ever before.
Working hours in the factory were usually long, from dawn to dusk, six days per week. More unskilled workers were needed than ever before to work the massive machines.
Before the factory system, many products such as shoes and muskets were made by skilled craftsmen who usually custom-made an entire item. In contrast, factories used a division of labor, in which most workers were either low-skilled laborers who operated machinery, or unskilled workers who moved materials and finished goods. |
Since they had fewer skills, these workers were often seen as expendable by management. They were paid low wages and worked in often dangerous conditions. Early factories were dark, poorly-lit buildings with large, unsafe machines. There were few safety guards since these cost money and there were no laws requiring them.
Since they had fewer skills, these workers were often seen as expendable by management. They were paid low wages and worked in often dangerous conditions. Early factories were dark, poorly-lit buildings with large, unsafe machines. There were few safety guards since these cost money and there were no laws requiring them.
Young children were employed by many factory owners because they could be paid less money. They also were also small enough to crawl under machinery to tie up broken threads. It was not until child labor laws were finally passed in the late 1800's that children were protected from abuse by factory owners.
From the textile industry, the factory system spread to other industries. Large furnaces and mills replaced small local forges and blacksmiths for producing metal. Eventually, machines replaced skilled craftsmen in the building of most goods.
The impact of the creation of all these factories was to drive people from rural areas to the cities where factories were located.
From the textile industry, the factory system spread to other industries. Large furnaces and mills replaced small local forges and blacksmiths for producing metal. Eventually, machines replaced skilled craftsmen in the building of most goods.
The impact of the creation of all these factories was to drive people from rural areas to the cities where factories were located.
5C- IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
As Industrial Revolution progressed, it had a massive impact on almost every aspect of society. In many ways, it improved society and made people’s lives easier. However, it also had negative impacts in many areas as well. Here are some of the more lasting and influential effects that industrialization had on society.
During the early Industrial Revolution, working conditions were usually terrible and sometimes tragic. Most factory employees worked 10 to 14 hours a day, six days a week, with no time off. Each industry had safety hazards that led to regular accidents on the job. As the era progressed, conditions became somewhat safer. However, it would take time for workers to unionize and demand safer conditions before things improved.
During the early Industrial Revolution, working conditions were usually terrible and sometimes tragic. Most factory employees worked 10 to 14 hours a day, six days a week, with no time off. Each industry had safety hazards that led to regular accidents on the job. As the era progressed, conditions became somewhat safer. However, it would take time for workers to unionize and demand safer conditions before things improved.
Working in new industrial cities had an effect on people’s lives outside of the factories as well. Urbanization was the greatest change to industrialized society. Cities expanded enormously as workers left their farms and migrated from rural areas to the city in search of jobs. In pre-industrial society, over 80% of people lived in rural areas. By the early 1900's, a majority of people in England and America lived in cities.
The densely packed and poorly constructed working-class tenements in cities contributed to the fast spread of disease. Neighborhoods were filthy, unplanned, and with criss-crossed muddy roads. Tenement apartments were built touching each other, leaving no room for ventilation. These often lacked toilets and sewage systems, and as a result, drinking sources were frequently contaminated with disease. Cholera, tuberculosis, typhus, typhoid, and influenza ravaged new industrial towns, especially in poor working-class neighborhoods.
For skilled workers, their quality of life decreased in early Industrial Revolution. Machines replaced the skills that weavers were previously paid well for. However, eventually the middle class would grow as factories expanded and allowed for managers and higher wages for workers. |
Gradually, a middle class did emerge in industrial cities toward the end of the 19th century. Until then, there had been only two major classes in society: aristocrats born into their lives of wealth and privilege, and low-income working class commoners. New urban industries eventually required more “white collar” jobs, such as business people, shopkeepers, bank clerks, insurance agents, merchants, accountants, managers, doctors, lawyers, and teachers.
Despite strong pushback from management and business owners, labor unions developed among workers. These unions used strikes, boycotts, and collective bargaining to win higher wages, shorter workdays, and other concessions that made their jobs more tolerable.
Laws were passed to end the abuses of child labor. With children in more densely packed cities, the first public school systems developed, greatly increasing the education level in society.
Women entered the workforce in textile mills and coal mines in large numbers, despite being paid less than men. Women began to organize and protest for more equality in society, most importantly for the right to vote. In the early 1900s, women finally won greater rights, including suffrage. Today, the feminist movement continues as women fight for equal pay and equal rights.
Despite strong pushback from management and business owners, labor unions developed among workers. These unions used strikes, boycotts, and collective bargaining to win higher wages, shorter workdays, and other concessions that made their jobs more tolerable.
Laws were passed to end the abuses of child labor. With children in more densely packed cities, the first public school systems developed, greatly increasing the education level in society.
Women entered the workforce in textile mills and coal mines in large numbers, despite being paid less than men. Women began to organize and protest for more equality in society, most importantly for the right to vote. In the early 1900s, women finally won greater rights, including suffrage. Today, the feminist movement continues as women fight for equal pay and equal rights.
5D- INVENTIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL AGE
The Gilded Age was a time of rapid growth and change for the United States. From 1870 to 1910, new inventions changed the way people communicated and traveled all across the world. Factories, railroads, coal mining and steel production all became essential industries in the country. Some of the most important inventions ever created were brought to life during this period.
In 1876, an American inventor born in Scotland by the name of Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and co-founded the company AT&T. This made it possible for people to communicate much more effectively.
In 1876, an American inventor born in Scotland by the name of Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and co-founded the company AT&T. This made it possible for people to communicate much more effectively.
In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph, allowing the recording of music and voices and aiding those with hearing impairments. The next year, he invented an improved lightbulb, which was essential for nighttime activities and increased safety as a less dangerous light source.
The Kodak camera was invented in 1888 by George Eastman. This was the first portable camera that could be used by the general public. Inventions were not just technical innovations. Before the Gilded Age era, Edward Jenner developed a vaccine for smallpox in England in 1796. This disease had ravaged populations for centuries. However, Jenner's vaccine was successful in preventing people from catching the deadly disease of smallpox. By the industrial era, his vaccine was in use in America and protected millions.
Later, a French scientist named Louis Pasteur developed Germ Theory in the 1860s. His experiments showed that bacteria and germs caused disease and food to spoil. He is also known for inventing a technique to stop bacterial contamination of milk, a process now called pasteurization. At the start of the 20th century, inventions helped bring the world closer together. In 1901, Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi developed the first long-distance wireless telegraph and transatlantic radio signal. This allowed ships on the ocean to communicate with land and led to the radio. |
Just 2 years later Wilbur and Orville Wright invented and flew the first motor-operated airplane after many failed attempts. This drastically changed the landscape of travel. The airplane would become an essential part of war technology and everyday life.
Following the changing scenery of the sky, In 1908, the Model T was invented by Henry Ford, who was the co-founder of Ford Motor Company. The Model T was the earliest version of a car that could be purchased by the public. He developed an assembly line to modernize how factories operated by reducing costs of production with standardized parts and more efficient assembly. The Gilded Age transformed the United States into a world leader in technology. During this time, inventions were produced at ten times the rate of the previous 70 years. Railroads, factories and other industries boomed and people were able to communicate in new and advanced ways. An important takeaway from this era is that people were able to connect with one another in ways they never could before through photographs, travel methods, and phone calls. This was all thanks to the many inventions that were given to us during this time.
|
5E- AMERICA'S MELTING POT IN THE GILDED AGE
After the passage of the Homestead Acts and the end of the Civil War, the United States experienced an influx of around 12 million immigrants from various countries around the world.
Many of them moved to America with the dream of making a better life for themselves, either by finding a job or to escape religious and economic struggles that they might have been facing in their home country.
Once on US soil, however, immigrants were not welcomed with open arms. They were largely expected to join the Melting Pot, a term for various ethnic groups losing their culture and assimilating into American culture. Imagine taking many different colors of crayons and melting them together. The end result would be one color once the crayons melded together. In the same way, the U.S. was considered a place where cultures and ethnicities would “melt together” and become one.
Many of them moved to America with the dream of making a better life for themselves, either by finding a job or to escape religious and economic struggles that they might have been facing in their home country.
Once on US soil, however, immigrants were not welcomed with open arms. They were largely expected to join the Melting Pot, a term for various ethnic groups losing their culture and assimilating into American culture. Imagine taking many different colors of crayons and melting them together. The end result would be one color once the crayons melded together. In the same way, the U.S. was considered a place where cultures and ethnicities would “melt together” and become one.
The immigrants who arrived in America during the Gilded Age were known as New Immigrants. They mostly came from Southern or Eastern Europe, including Italy, Poland, Russia, and the Balkans. Until they were excluded by law, immigrants from China and Japan also arrived in large numbers as part of this wave of immigration.
The New Immigrants were primarily Catholic, Orthodox, or Jewish. More of them were illiterate, meaning they could not read nor write, and were unskilled workers. Due to the fact that many of them did not speak English and did not come over with much money, they faced hostilities from many in America. |
They were called New Immigrants to distinguish them from the Old Immigrants. These were the people who came to America before the Civil War. They came primarily from Northern and Western European countries such as England, Germany, and Ireland.
Old Immigrants usually belonged to the Protestant faith, were more likely to be literate (meaning they could read and write), and had skilled jobs. The majority of them came as families and had some money to their names. The Old Immigrants assimilated, or fit in, much more easily than later immigrants due to the fact that they either spoke English or because they were considered "white".
Many of these Old Immigrants began to support nativism during the Gilded Age. These Nativists were staunchly anti-immigration. They often traced their American ancestry back to one the original British American Colonies.
Old Immigrants usually belonged to the Protestant faith, were more likely to be literate (meaning they could read and write), and had skilled jobs. The majority of them came as families and had some money to their names. The Old Immigrants assimilated, or fit in, much more easily than later immigrants due to the fact that they either spoke English or because they were considered "white".
Many of these Old Immigrants began to support nativism during the Gilded Age. These Nativists were staunchly anti-immigration. They often traced their American ancestry back to one the original British American Colonies.
Their strong feelings about immigration and the desire to preserve a what they believed was the "true American identity" led to the formation of the American Party. This became popularly known as the Know Nothing Party because members were instructed to say "I know nothing" whenever they were asked about it.
Members of the Know Nothing Party sought to protect the rights of what they called “native-born Americans”, which ironically did not refer to American Indians. They were white Protestants and anti-Catholic, with a particular disdain for Irish Catholic immigrants. They thought that America's New Immigrants threatened them socially and economically.
The party died out in the second half of the 19th Century, with supporters switching to the Republican or Constitutional Union Party.
Members of the Know Nothing Party sought to protect the rights of what they called “native-born Americans”, which ironically did not refer to American Indians. They were white Protestants and anti-Catholic, with a particular disdain for Irish Catholic immigrants. They thought that America's New Immigrants threatened them socially and economically.
The party died out in the second half of the 19th Century, with supporters switching to the Republican or Constitutional Union Party.
5F- CHILD LABOR IN THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
It may be shocking to learn that before the 1900s in the United States, there were virtually no laws protecting children from the cruelties of child labor. As more Americans left farms to move to cities and urban areas during the Industrial Revolution, adults were not the only ones who found themselves working in large factories and coal mines.
At the turn of the century, children were mainly put to work because their families needed the money. Wages tended to be very low and more family members working meant more money coming into the household.
At the turn of the century, children were mainly put to work because their families needed the money. Wages tended to be very low and more family members working meant more money coming into the household.
Employers also had reasons for hiring child laborers over adult workers. Children could be paid even lesson money and, since they were smaller, could more easily fit between machines and into tighter spaces.
Consequently, these children often did not go to school. While Massachusetts was the first state to require children to attend school in 1852, most states had no laws on education until around the turn of the century. Mississippi became the last to require school attendance for children in 1918. The conditions under which the child laborers worked were very dangerous. Not only did they have to work long, grueling hours, they also faced threats posed by the high powered machinery.
It was common for a child to lose a limb or a finger, as they did not have the most extensive training on how to properly work the machinery in their factory. Children who worked in coal mines experienced similar conditions: miners toiled away in spaces with poor ventilation and would frequently develop lung diseases. Sometimes, they were made to work around dangerous chemicals, which caused them to become sick from the toxic fumes. It was normal for a child to log between 12 and 14 hours of work a day. Other jobs that children held included selling newspapers on the street and sweeping chimneys. In all cases, dangerous or not, children were paid tremendously low wages at a very high cost to their health and their education. |
As word of the danger spread in the early 1900s, a handful of groups began to organize around protecting children and banning the use of child labor. The National Child Labor Committee was formed in 1904 to abolish all child labor. A few years later, President Theodore Roosevelt hosted the first White House Conference on Children.
It was due to their efforts and the work of other anti-child labor organizations that the first laws were proposed and passed at the state level. It was not until the 1938 Fair Labor Standards Act that child labor would be regulated at the national level. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed this legislation that was promoted by his sectary of labor Frances Perkins. Perkins was the first woman to serve in a presidential cabinet. The Fair Labor Standards Act banned children under 18 from working dangerous jobs and children under 16 were forbidden from work in manufacturing or mining or during school hours. It also required workers to be paid minimum wage and higher overtime pay.
Today, most children are not put to work, as school has become their priority. While teenagers can certainly have part-time jobs, this system is now heavily regulated by the states and laws protect the well-being of minors who are employed. |
5G- COMPARING ECONOMIC PHILOSOPHIES
As the Industrial Revolution radically changed society, many philosophies developed on how it helped or hurt society and what should be done about it. Some people felt governments should support business to promote wealth. Others felt the government needed to do more to help the working class against big businesses.
The three dominant economic and political philosophies that developed were Capitalism, Socialism, and Communism.
The three dominant economic and political philosophies that developed were Capitalism, Socialism, and Communism.
Capitalism
One of the first people to write about government policy toward industrial society was Adam Smith, from Scotland. In his influential book Wealth of Nations, Smith also argued that wealth distribution could work most effectively without any government interference.
This laissez-faire “leave alone” policy would encourage the most efficient operation of private and commercial businesses. If the government let people and business do as they pleased, they would act out of self-interest and maximize the economic well-being of society as a whole.
One of the first people to write about government policy toward industrial society was Adam Smith, from Scotland. In his influential book Wealth of Nations, Smith also argued that wealth distribution could work most effectively without any government interference.
This laissez-faire “leave alone” policy would encourage the most efficient operation of private and commercial businesses. If the government let people and business do as they pleased, they would act out of self-interest and maximize the economic well-being of society as a whole.
Socialism
Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and other early socialist thinkers saw the need to reform rather than destroy capitalism. Fourier declared that cooperation was the secrets of success in society. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in productivity. This meant that the government would need to pass laws to protect workers. Socialists also sought reforms in the legal system, prisons, and education. Many even began the suffrage movement to extend the right to vote
Similarly, the factors of production should be owned by the public and operate for the welfare of all. Socialists argued that government control of factories, railroads, mines, and key industries would end poverty and promote equality.
Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and other early socialist thinkers saw the need to reform rather than destroy capitalism. Fourier declared that cooperation was the secrets of success in society. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in productivity. This meant that the government would need to pass laws to protect workers. Socialists also sought reforms in the legal system, prisons, and education. Many even began the suffrage movement to extend the right to vote
Similarly, the factors of production should be owned by the public and operate for the welfare of all. Socialists argued that government control of factories, railroads, mines, and key industries would end poverty and promote equality.
Communism
A German journalist named Karl Marx, however, insisted that capitalism had to be completely overturned in order for society to advance and the “proletariat” to be treated fairly. He and Friedrich Engels, outlined their ideas in The Communist Manifesto. According to Marx and Engels, the Industrial Revolution enriched the wealthy and impoverished the poor. He even went so far as to write that religion was “the opium of the people" because the ruling classes used it to give false hope to the working class.
Marx believed that a revolution was inevitable: “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingmen of all countries, unite.” He believed that the means of production—all land, factories, railroads, and businesses—should be owned by the people. Private property should cease to exist and all goods and services could be shared equally.
A German journalist named Karl Marx, however, insisted that capitalism had to be completely overturned in order for society to advance and the “proletariat” to be treated fairly. He and Friedrich Engels, outlined their ideas in The Communist Manifesto. According to Marx and Engels, the Industrial Revolution enriched the wealthy and impoverished the poor. He even went so far as to write that religion was “the opium of the people" because the ruling classes used it to give false hope to the working class.
Marx believed that a revolution was inevitable: “The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingmen of all countries, unite.” He believed that the means of production—all land, factories, railroads, and businesses—should be owned by the people. Private property should cease to exist and all goods and services could be shared equally.
5H- STRIKES AND LABOR UNIONS
In the early Industrial Revolution, factory owners held almost all the power. There were few laws to protect workers. Consequently, abuses were common. Factories were dark, dangerous places. Many laborers worked 12-hour days, 6 days a week. Children were employed in coal mines and factories.
As this continued, workers began to organize and demand safer working conditions, higher wages, and an 8-hour-workday. These organizations of workers are called unions. Craft unions had been around for over a hundred years. However, these were organizations of skilled workers like shoemakers, typesetters, or mechanics. The American Federation of Labor (AFL), was one of the first large organizations of skilled workers. They had more power to make demands because their skills. Unions of unskilled or semiskilled workers had a much more difficult time organizing. Because these workers did not have a specific skill that was learned over many years, they were seen as expendable by management. Often, any worker who even tried to organize his or her coworkers would be fired.
The Knights of Labor were one of the first large organizations of unskilled, semiskilled and skilled workers. They, and other unions, faced intense pressure from corporations and the government. |
In 1886, The Knights of Labor organized a strike by railroad workers across 5 states to protest unsafe conditions, long hours, and low pay. Unfortunately for the strikers, strikebreakers were brought in to work and some state governors used their state militias to break up protests. The failure of the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886 weakened the Knights of Labor.
Later that year in Chicago, workers were striking for an 8-hour work day. During a peaceful rally at Haymarket Square, an unknown person threw a bomb at police who were trying to break up the demonstration. The blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; dozens of others were wounded. This resulted in a harsh anti-union clampdown. Employers regained control of their workers and traditional workdays were restored to ten or more hours a day. The entire labor and immigrant community came under suspicion.
The next major strike in the United States occurred in 1894 against the Pullman Company, a manufacturer of railroad cars. Labor leader Eugene Debs formed the American Railway Union (ARU) to push for higher wages. They organized a strike and a boycott that involved 250,000 workers in 27 states. President Grover Cleveland used the US Army to break the strike. Debs was convicted of federal charges for defying a court injunction against the strike and served six months in prison.
Despite the challenges strikes organized by labor unions became routine events. There were 37,000 strikes in America from 1881 to 1905. The main goal was control of working conditions, setting uniform wage scales, or to protest the firing of a member. Most strikes were of very short duration. During poor economic times, strikes were violent and less successful. However, as economic times improved, strikes were more successful because the company was losing profits and wanted to settle quickly.
In the early 20th Century, the Pullman Company was one of the largest single employers of Black people in America. Thousands of African Americans were employed as porters, who carried bags and served passengers on the train cars. The company required porters to travel 11,000 miles, nearly 400 hours, per month to earn a basic wage. Porters worked an average of over 73 hours per week and earned 27.8 cents an hour.
Under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, Pullman porters formed the first all-Black union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) in 1925. A contract between the BSCP and the Pullman Company was signed in 1937. It raised the wages of porters and maids, established a 240-hour month and provided overtime pay.
Later that year in Chicago, workers were striking for an 8-hour work day. During a peaceful rally at Haymarket Square, an unknown person threw a bomb at police who were trying to break up the demonstration. The blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians; dozens of others were wounded. This resulted in a harsh anti-union clampdown. Employers regained control of their workers and traditional workdays were restored to ten or more hours a day. The entire labor and immigrant community came under suspicion.
The next major strike in the United States occurred in 1894 against the Pullman Company, a manufacturer of railroad cars. Labor leader Eugene Debs formed the American Railway Union (ARU) to push for higher wages. They organized a strike and a boycott that involved 250,000 workers in 27 states. President Grover Cleveland used the US Army to break the strike. Debs was convicted of federal charges for defying a court injunction against the strike and served six months in prison.
Despite the challenges strikes organized by labor unions became routine events. There were 37,000 strikes in America from 1881 to 1905. The main goal was control of working conditions, setting uniform wage scales, or to protest the firing of a member. Most strikes were of very short duration. During poor economic times, strikes were violent and less successful. However, as economic times improved, strikes were more successful because the company was losing profits and wanted to settle quickly.
In the early 20th Century, the Pullman Company was one of the largest single employers of Black people in America. Thousands of African Americans were employed as porters, who carried bags and served passengers on the train cars. The company required porters to travel 11,000 miles, nearly 400 hours, per month to earn a basic wage. Porters worked an average of over 73 hours per week and earned 27.8 cents an hour.
Under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, Pullman porters formed the first all-Black union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) in 1925. A contract between the BSCP and the Pullman Company was signed in 1937. It raised the wages of porters and maids, established a 240-hour month and provided overtime pay.
5I- TOKUGAWA JAPAN
The Tokugawa shogunate came to power in Japan in 1603 and brought more than two and a half centuries of uninterrupted peace to the island nation. The era was characterized by economic growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies, a stable population, "no more wars", and popular enjoyment of arts and culture. This era is also referred to as the Edo Period, after Edo, the former name of Tokyo.
Feudalism
The Tokugawa regime, named for the Tokugawa family, was characterized by centralized feudalism. Appointed by the emperor, the first Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, had direct control of one-fourth of Japan in strategically located parcels-lands he had acquired by skillfully surviving a turbulent era of civil warfare.
The remaining land was parceled out by the shogun to the daimyos, similar to feudal barons, who pledged their allegiance to the shogun in exchange for the right to rule in their own domains.
All the rice grown by farmers working on land ruled by the daimyos was considered a national crop and distributed by the shogun. At the time, a typical year's crop of 25 million kokuóa koku was approximately five bushels and would feed one person for one year. The shogun took 5 million koku for himself and distributed another 5 million to his 270 or so daimyo, leaving the farmers with about half of their crops. However, in a poor crop year, the shogun did not reduce his demands for himself or his daimyos, which resulted in great hardships for the farmers, who had little to no recourse.
The Tokugawa regime, named for the Tokugawa family, was characterized by centralized feudalism. Appointed by the emperor, the first Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Ieyasu, had direct control of one-fourth of Japan in strategically located parcels-lands he had acquired by skillfully surviving a turbulent era of civil warfare.
The remaining land was parceled out by the shogun to the daimyos, similar to feudal barons, who pledged their allegiance to the shogun in exchange for the right to rule in their own domains.
All the rice grown by farmers working on land ruled by the daimyos was considered a national crop and distributed by the shogun. At the time, a typical year's crop of 25 million kokuóa koku was approximately five bushels and would feed one person for one year. The shogun took 5 million koku for himself and distributed another 5 million to his 270 or so daimyo, leaving the farmers with about half of their crops. However, in a poor crop year, the shogun did not reduce his demands for himself or his daimyos, which resulted in great hardships for the farmers, who had little to no recourse.
Political Stability
The shogun ensured the loyalty of the daimyos by instituting a policy called the sankin kotai system. The daimyos were required to spend every other year in Edo, the shogun's capital city and present-day Tokyo. Maintaining two residences and traveling between them with such frequency, as well as being long-distance managers every other year, placed a huge financial burden on the daimyos and moderated their power at home. When they did travel home, they were required to leave family members, often their wives and eldest sons, in Edo as hostages to ensure their return and peaceful behavior.
Life throughout Tokugawa Japan was very structured. The population was divided into four distinct classes: samurai, farmers or peasants, craftspeople, and merchants or traders. The members of the four classes were not allowed to change their social status. The peasants, who made up 80% of the population, were forbidden to engage in non agricultural activities in order to ensure a stable and continuing source of income for the daimyos and the shogun. Strict codes of behavior imposed by the shogun affected every aspect of life: the clothes one wore, the person one married, and the activities one could or could not pursue.
The shogun ensured the loyalty of the daimyos by instituting a policy called the sankin kotai system. The daimyos were required to spend every other year in Edo, the shogun's capital city and present-day Tokyo. Maintaining two residences and traveling between them with such frequency, as well as being long-distance managers every other year, placed a huge financial burden on the daimyos and moderated their power at home. When they did travel home, they were required to leave family members, often their wives and eldest sons, in Edo as hostages to ensure their return and peaceful behavior.
Life throughout Tokugawa Japan was very structured. The population was divided into four distinct classes: samurai, farmers or peasants, craftspeople, and merchants or traders. The members of the four classes were not allowed to change their social status. The peasants, who made up 80% of the population, were forbidden to engage in non agricultural activities in order to ensure a stable and continuing source of income for the daimyos and the shogun. Strict codes of behavior imposed by the shogun affected every aspect of life: the clothes one wore, the person one married, and the activities one could or could not pursue.
Economic Growth
Since the shogun's primary source of income was a fixed stipend tied to agricultural production, the Tokugawa shogunate placed an emphasis on agricultural progress. Improved farming methods and the growing of cash crops stimulated agricultural productivity. Domestic trade and agricultural production continued to improve throughout the reign of the Tokugawa shogunate. Coins, weights, and measures were standardized. Road networks were improved to facilitate the transportation of goods.
Expansion of commerce and the manufacturing industry including the production of silk and cotton fabrics, the manufacture of paper and porcelains, and sake brewing was even greater than that of agriculture and stimulated the development of large urban centers in Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto, home of the emperor.
Japan continued to experience unprecedented prosperity, which made it one of the world's most sophisticated premodern commercial societies, until its resulting population boom began to outstrip its natural resources.
Since the shogun's primary source of income was a fixed stipend tied to agricultural production, the Tokugawa shogunate placed an emphasis on agricultural progress. Improved farming methods and the growing of cash crops stimulated agricultural productivity. Domestic trade and agricultural production continued to improve throughout the reign of the Tokugawa shogunate. Coins, weights, and measures were standardized. Road networks were improved to facilitate the transportation of goods.
Expansion of commerce and the manufacturing industry including the production of silk and cotton fabrics, the manufacture of paper and porcelains, and sake brewing was even greater than that of agriculture and stimulated the development of large urban centers in Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto, home of the emperor.
Japan continued to experience unprecedented prosperity, which made it one of the world's most sophisticated premodern commercial societies, until its resulting population boom began to outstrip its natural resources.
Cultural Growth
Centuries of peace and the emergence of a well-to-do merchant class generated new art forms. The Kabuki Theater and the licensed brothel quarters became very popular especially among the townspeople. And ukiyo- e paintings and woodblock prints of the world of the Kabuki Theater and the brothel district became a school of art in its own right.
Katsura Palace in Kyoto, perhaps the finest example ever of classic Japanese architecture, was built surrounded by beautiful Japanese gardens.
Since peace prevailed, the samurai warriors had time to educate themselves not only in the martial arts but also in literature, philosophy, and the arts. Literacy spread to almost half the male population.
Centuries of peace and the emergence of a well-to-do merchant class generated new art forms. The Kabuki Theater and the licensed brothel quarters became very popular especially among the townspeople. And ukiyo- e paintings and woodblock prints of the world of the Kabuki Theater and the brothel district became a school of art in its own right.
Katsura Palace in Kyoto, perhaps the finest example ever of classic Japanese architecture, was built surrounded by beautiful Japanese gardens.
Since peace prevailed, the samurai warriors had time to educate themselves not only in the martial arts but also in literature, philosophy, and the arts. Literacy spread to almost half the male population.
Isolation
Determined to maintain control through a restrictive and controlled society and fearing the colonial encroachment of Spain and Portugal, the shogun severely limited direct contact with foreigners. The shogun became convinced that Christian missionaries posed a threat to Japan's rigid social structure. In 1614, he took drastic steps to stop missionary activity and discourage the practice of Christianity. Within 20 years, Christianity was all but eradicated in Japan.
Travel was also closely regulated, and all foreign books were banned, a ban that for the most part would stay in place until 1720. Only token foreign trade survived, and that was only at the southern port of Nagasaki and only with a few Chinese and Dutch merchants. From 1633 onward, Japanese subjects were forbidden to travel abroad or to return from overseas. A policy of national seclusion was instituted in 1639. As a result of that policy of isolation, Japan's development fell substantially behind that of Europe, particularly in the areas of science, technology, and military power.
Determined to maintain control through a restrictive and controlled society and fearing the colonial encroachment of Spain and Portugal, the shogun severely limited direct contact with foreigners. The shogun became convinced that Christian missionaries posed a threat to Japan's rigid social structure. In 1614, he took drastic steps to stop missionary activity and discourage the practice of Christianity. Within 20 years, Christianity was all but eradicated in Japan.
Travel was also closely regulated, and all foreign books were banned, a ban that for the most part would stay in place until 1720. Only token foreign trade survived, and that was only at the southern port of Nagasaki and only with a few Chinese and Dutch merchants. From 1633 onward, Japanese subjects were forbidden to travel abroad or to return from overseas. A policy of national seclusion was instituted in 1639. As a result of that policy of isolation, Japan's development fell substantially behind that of Europe, particularly in the areas of science, technology, and military power.