CHAPTER 4- AGE OF REVOLUTIONS
4A- THE ESTATE SYSTEM IN FRANCE
French social life in the 1700s was marked by class divisions among its population. The entirety of the country was broken up into three estates, or levels of status, which determined almost every aspect of an individual’s life. The first, second, and third estates can be thought of as fixed social positions, and it was extremely difficult for someone of a lower estate to move up to a higher estate. Before the French Revolution of the late 18th century, this was the system used by the Ancien Régime, or the “old order”, and was glorified by the monarch Louis XVI.
In the highest estate, the 1st Estate, one would find members of the Roman Catholic clergy. These included bishops, priests, and nuns among other religious figures in the country. Only about 0.5% of the population was part of the 1st Estate.
The 2nd Estate consisted of the Nobles, representing about 2% of the population. Members of the 2nd Estate also owned approximately 20% of the land, which was another symbol of wealth and status in France. Nobles could be high ranking members of government or even family members of Louis XVI.
Although the 1st and the 2nd Estate members did not pay any taxes, they nevertheless reaped all of the benefits of a tax-paying country. Indeed, they were exempt from paying many of the taxes from which France gained its money. This was the cause of the extreme inequality between the 1st and 2nd Estate compared to the 3rd Estate.
Finally, the 3rd Estate comprised the rest of the population. They had very little rights and paid nearly half of their income in taxes. Individuals in the 3rd Estate could be peasants, lawyers, laborers, or land workers who were toiling away on the lands of the Nobles. They lived a life of poverty and food insecurity, meaning they frequently did not have enough food to feed their families. The success of the higher estates was therefore dependent upon the work that the 3rd Estate individuals performed to essentially keep the country running. This created an unfair tip in the scales.
Today, a similar debate rages in many countries around the world regarding the distribution of taxes. While many argue about the unfair ways that taxes are split up among members of society, others stand by the idea that taxes should be raised for the upper class so that they pay their fair share and alleviate the strain put on the backs of the lower class.
4B- CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
As the world neared the end of the 1700s, France was long established as one of the wealthiest and most powerful countries in Europe. Although most of its population were poor farmers who would never reap the benefits of that status, France had positioned itself highly among the other European nations.
However, the status quo could not prevail, and within a few short years, the French Revolution would completely capsize all sense of normalcy in the country. This Revolution would eventually result in the death of the king, his wife, and countless others.
The causes of the French Revolution can be narrowed to five main factors: the Estate System, absolutism, Enlightenment ideas, food shortages, and the American Revolution.
The Estate System placed people into groups based on birth and was known as the Ancien Regime. The First Estate was made up of the clergy who led the Catholic church. They were the smallest group and paid no taxes. The higher clergy like bishops enjoyed many benefits, while the lower clergy were common priests and nuns.
The Second Estate consisted of the nobility and was less than 2% of France's population. They were also exempt from taxes and having to perform work for the government.
Most of France's population belonged to the Third Estate. Most were free peasants while others were urban laborers, including the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie were France's educated middle class. They, like the rest of the Third Estate resented having to pay taxes to support the other Estates and having little say in government.
To further fuel the anger of the French population, King Louis XVI had near absolute power over his subjects, a practice known as absolutism.
Louis XVI was convinced that his status came from God, and that gave him the right to maintain the highest level of power in the country.
It was quite common for Louis XVI to ensure that the people in the highest tiers of society were taken care of, and that they had adequate amounts of food. Conversely, the bottom tiers of society were often left starving.
Louis XVI was convinced that his status came from God, and that gave him the right to maintain the highest level of power in the country.
It was quite common for Louis XVI to ensure that the people in the highest tiers of society were taken care of, and that they had adequate amounts of food. Conversely, the bottom tiers of society were often left starving.
Food shortages ravaged the country, and there was a low supply of bread due to poor harvests. Thus, as the demand for bread increased, so did the price of bread, since it was so hard to come by. This in turn increased tension and anger among the 3rd Estate.
New ideas about how society and government should work were emerging at this time. These ideas would come primarily from Enlightenment philosophers who promoted using science and reasoning over tradition. Enlightened thinkers championed new ideas regarding government, equality, and democracy.
The people of France were also inspired by the American Revolution in which the United States successfully gained independence from Britain. This served as an example of a successful revolution, and provided a guideline as to how a country could operate as a republic instead of a monarchy.
New ideas about how society and government should work were emerging at this time. These ideas would come primarily from Enlightenment philosophers who promoted using science and reasoning over tradition. Enlightened thinkers championed new ideas regarding government, equality, and democracy.
The people of France were also inspired by the American Revolution in which the United States successfully gained independence from Britain. This served as an example of a successful revolution, and provided a guideline as to how a country could operate as a republic instead of a monarchy.
4C- THE GUILLOTINE DURING THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
One of the most recognizable and terrifying symbols of the French Revolution is the guillotine. Named for Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the man who created it, the guillotine was developed as a way to execute people in a more humane way. Dr. Guillotin was disturbed by the brutal beheadings that were taking place in his country as a form of capital punishment. Up until the late 1700s, those sentenced to death by decapitation had their heads cut off by swords or axes. Dr. Guillotin believed that a machine could be created which would swiftly and effectively decapitate people, sparing them suffering or mangling during their death. Thus, in 1789, the guillotine was born, a tall mechanism that featured a sharp, heavy blade positioned at the top and a kneeling area for people to stick their head through at the bottom. Once the blade came down, the execution was complete.
Despite Dr. Guillotin’s initial goal of creating a humane form of execution, the guillotine was used to kill thousands of people during the Reign of Terror. Among them were members of the bourgeoisie, aristocrats, peasants, foreigners, and sympathizers of the revolution. The guillotine was also used to execute Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and Maximilien Robespierre, the man responsible for the Reign of Terror.
King Louis XVI, who had formerly been the absolute monarch of France but was reduced in stature during the revolution, tried to flee the country with his wife, Marie Antoinette. They were unsuccessful in their attempt and didn’t make it very far. In 1793, King Louis XVI was sentenced to death by the guillotine after he was found to have been conspiring with other countries and engaging in counter-revolutionary acts. He was found guilty of treason and later executed.
Nine months later, Marie Antoinette, the former Queen of France, was executed by the guillotine. She was known - and widely disliked - for her opulent lifestyle and her extreme spending habits. For this reason, she earned herself the nickname of “Madame Deficit” because of all the money she spent in her time as queen. The courts also found her guilty of treason just like her husband, and she was beheaded by the guillotine in October of 1793.
During the Reign of Terror, Maximilien de Robespierre made it his duty to seek out any individuals who disagreed with or criticized the French Revolution. Those who were found guilty of this behavior were thrown into prison or killed. His methods were deemed much too extreme to continue, and he was subsequently arrested by the National Convention. Robespierre was put to death by the guillotine in July of 1794
During the Reign of Terror, Maximilien de Robespierre made it his duty to seek out any individuals who disagreed with or criticized the French Revolution. Those who were found guilty of this behavior were thrown into prison or killed. His methods were deemed much too extreme to continue, and he was subsequently arrested by the National Convention. Robespierre was put to death by the guillotine in July of 1794
4D- TIMELINE OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
With France in tremendous debt and more than 90% of its people facing food shortages, King Louis XVI found himself growing desperate at the end of the 18th century. On May 5, 1789, he called for a meeting of the Estates General, which was something like a Parliament, which hadn’t met for over 100 years. Members of the Estates General included representatives from all three Estates in the French social hierarchy, although there was an overrepresentation of people from the 3rd Estate. Unfortunately, they couldn’t come to much of a consensus during this meeting regarding how to address the huge royal debt that Louis XVI had accrued.
Shortly after, the summer of 1789 ushered in a period known as The Great Fear (or la Grande Peur in French). There was a general panic among the members of the lower estate, the 3rd Estate, that the higher ranking individuals of the country were plotting against them. It didn’t help that in June of 1789, members of the Third Estate - who would commonly meet up to discuss political issues - found that their meeting house had been locked, and they supposed the King was responsible for it. They therefore moved their meeting to a tennis court in Versailles, and on June 20, they signed the Tennis Court Oath. As part of this Oath, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and agreed that they would not stop meeting until they could force a new constitution on the King.
Shortly after, the summer of 1789 ushered in a period known as The Great Fear (or la Grande Peur in French). There was a general panic among the members of the lower estate, the 3rd Estate, that the higher ranking individuals of the country were plotting against them. It didn’t help that in June of 1789, members of the Third Estate - who would commonly meet up to discuss political issues - found that their meeting house had been locked, and they supposed the King was responsible for it. They therefore moved their meeting to a tennis court in Versailles, and on June 20, they signed the Tennis Court Oath. As part of this Oath, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly and agreed that they would not stop meeting until they could force a new constitution on the King.
One of the first major acts of the French Revolution would occur on July 14, 1789, and is celebrated today as Bastille Day. On this day, a mob from Paris stormed the Bastille - which was a fortress that kept political prisoners - and set them free. The mob also beheaded the prison guard and his accompanying officers.
Another was the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which was approved by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789. The document spoke of the rights of men as they related to freedom, political assembly, and the law. Shortly after, on October 5 of that same year, an angry mob of nearly 1,000 armed women marched from Paris to Versailles to protest the rising costs of bread. Bread was already a scarce commodity, and it was also a staple to everyday meals, but tensions flared when people saw their basic necessities virtually disappear. It also didn’t help that the King up until that point had been flaunting his lavish lifestyle. Thus, the women converged and engaged in their historic March on Versailles.
Another was the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which was approved by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789. The document spoke of the rights of men as they related to freedom, political assembly, and the law. Shortly after, on October 5 of that same year, an angry mob of nearly 1,000 armed women marched from Paris to Versailles to protest the rising costs of bread. Bread was already a scarce commodity, and it was also a staple to everyday meals, but tensions flared when people saw their basic necessities virtually disappear. It also didn’t help that the King up until that point had been flaunting his lavish lifestyle. Thus, the women converged and engaged in their historic March on Versailles.
King Louis XVI was eventually found guilty of treason and was executed by the guillotine on January 21, 1793, by the Radical Republicans. One of the champions of the King’s overthrow, a man named Maximilien de Robespierre, would thrust the country into what became known as the Reign of Terror, a horrific period of time in which any individual who was accused of questioning the Revolution would be jailed or killed. The irony in this was that Robespierre had been named the head of the committee on Public Safety, yet thousands were executed under his command during this time.
Queen Marie Antoinette, King Louis XVI’s wife, was also found guilty of treason and was beheaded for those crimes on October 16, 1793. Like her husband, she was executed by the guillotine. Months later, on July 28, 1794, Robespierre would become a third high ranking individual to meet his fate with the guillotine. He was overthrown by the National Convention and was later executed.
Finally, although they tried to move away from an autocratic reign, Napoleon assumed dictatorial power as 1st Council of the Republic on November 9, 1799, and later, he was crowned the Emperor of France.
Queen Marie Antoinette, King Louis XVI’s wife, was also found guilty of treason and was beheaded for those crimes on October 16, 1793. Like her husband, she was executed by the guillotine. Months later, on July 28, 1794, Robespierre would become a third high ranking individual to meet his fate with the guillotine. He was overthrown by the National Convention and was later executed.
Finally, although they tried to move away from an autocratic reign, Napoleon assumed dictatorial power as 1st Council of the Republic on November 9, 1799, and later, he was crowned the Emperor of France.
4E- THE RISE OF NAPOLEON
At just 30 years old, Napoleon Bonaparte became the highest political figure in France in November of 1799. After a successful coup, or an overthrow, of the French Directory - which at the time was the government that was put in place after the Revolution - Napoleon and two other individuals formed the Consulate, with Napoleon acting as first consul. He would later become the Emperor of France and use his military expertise to conquer much of Europe. What he is perhaps best remembered for, however, is his restoration of order to France after a violent and disorderly ten years of Revolution. Specifically, he was able to bring order back in the areas of the economy, society, law, and religion.
In terms of economic order, Napoleon was successful in slowing inflation, which is the increase in the price of goods and when it takes more money to purchase a product than it did before.
King Louis XVI had done quite a number on France’s budget, having thrust the country into tremendous debt, so Napoleon also took on the task of balancing the budget and paying off that debt. He also created a National Bank and sold Louisiana territory to the United States, who was more than happy to expand its borders.
From a social aspect, Napoleon welcomed the nobles - who comprised the higher ranking Estates of the country - back on an agreement of good behavior. Officials were also promoted based on their merit, meaning whether or not they deserved it by the acts they performed or the skills they demonstrated, versus because of their nobility. Finally, he set up a series of Lycees, which today would be considered public schools.
King Louis XVI had done quite a number on France’s budget, having thrust the country into tremendous debt, so Napoleon also took on the task of balancing the budget and paying off that debt. He also created a National Bank and sold Louisiana territory to the United States, who was more than happy to expand its borders.
From a social aspect, Napoleon welcomed the nobles - who comprised the higher ranking Estates of the country - back on an agreement of good behavior. Officials were also promoted based on their merit, meaning whether or not they deserved it by the acts they performed or the skills they demonstrated, versus because of their nobility. Finally, he set up a series of Lycees, which today would be considered public schools.
By way of religious order, Napoleon and then-Pope Pius VII signed an agreement in 1801 known as the Concordat, which established two major principles: one, that there would be a reconciliation between the Catholics and the French revolutionaries, who had grown wary of each other throughout the Revolution. It also maintained that the Roman Catholic church would be the predominant one of France, but allowed for freedom of religion. The Concordat also stipulated that the Pope would lose any and all political control.
Regarding legal order, Napoleon established the Napoleonic Code of Laws, many of which are still in use today. This new code distinguished between various forms of law, such as civil, criminal, family, and property, to name just a few. The Napoleonic Code also promoted equality under the law and also made it so that no “secret” laws could be enforced; the public had to know about what was legal and what was not legal, so transparency was something that he encouraged. This Code was adopted in 1804.
Regarding legal order, Napoleon established the Napoleonic Code of Laws, many of which are still in use today. This new code distinguished between various forms of law, such as civil, criminal, family, and property, to name just a few. The Napoleonic Code also promoted equality under the law and also made it so that no “secret” laws could be enforced; the public had to know about what was legal and what was not legal, so transparency was something that he encouraged. This Code was adopted in 1804.
Despite Napoleon Bonaparte’s early successes in restoring order to France at the beginning of the 1800s, the ten years after he became Emperor would be mired by failures, eventually leading to his downfall.
One of this first moves in attempting to conquer or gain an advantage over much of Europe came with the Continental System. This decree, enacted by Napoleon, was meant to weaken England. In it, he encouraged any countries who were either neutral (meaning they didn’t take sides) or who were allies with France to stop doing business with England. It was his hope that England would suffer economically. The Continental System, however, failed, due in part to the fact that England had natural resources to sustain itself. The country that was weakened, ironically, was France.
One of this first moves in attempting to conquer or gain an advantage over much of Europe came with the Continental System. This decree, enacted by Napoleon, was meant to weaken England. In it, he encouraged any countries who were either neutral (meaning they didn’t take sides) or who were allies with France to stop doing business with England. It was his hope that England would suffer economically. The Continental System, however, failed, due in part to the fact that England had natural resources to sustain itself. The country that was weakened, ironically, was France.
From 1808 to 1814, France was engaged in the Peninsular War against Spain and Portugal, who were aided in the conflict by Great Britain.
Napoleon had set his sights on conquering the Iberian Peninsula and actually succeeded in doing so when he conquered Spain in 1808. He installed his older brother, Joseph as the King of Spain. His short rule lasted from 1808 to 1813.
This upset the Spaniards, who had once been allies with France. The Peninsular War turned out to be quite costly, and although the French won against Spain, this was a turning point in Napoleon’s reign: it was a moment in which his previous allies realized how land-greedy he was becoming.
Napoleon had set his sights on conquering the Iberian Peninsula and actually succeeded in doing so when he conquered Spain in 1808. He installed his older brother, Joseph as the King of Spain. His short rule lasted from 1808 to 1813.
This upset the Spaniards, who had once been allies with France. The Peninsular War turned out to be quite costly, and although the French won against Spain, this was a turning point in Napoleon’s reign: it was a moment in which his previous allies realized how land-greedy he was becoming.
Meanwhile, in 1812, the French under Napoleon embarked on an invasion of Russia. He had hoped to gain political advantage with both Russia and Poland as a result of this invasion, and to defeat Russian troops. It was, however, a total disaster. Not only was it freezing cold, but the Russians were certainly not open to any engagements with the French. They retreated, but not before enacted a “scorched earth” policy, one in which they burned all of the crops as they moved further away from the French. This left Napoleon’s troops with little to eat. All totaled, the French army would lose hundreds of thousands of men during the six-month invasion.
By June of 1815, Napoleon’s list of enemy countries had grown to include Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia due to his actions. The four countries all braced themselves for what they assumed would be a war with Napoleon’s forces, and when he got wind of this, he thought he might catch them by surprise and try to defeat them. He subsequently invaded Belgium, the spark which ignited the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon and his forces were defeated at this battle, which would mark the final defeat of his reign.
By June of 1815, Napoleon’s list of enemy countries had grown to include Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia due to his actions. The four countries all braced themselves for what they assumed would be a war with Napoleon’s forces, and when he got wind of this, he thought he might catch them by surprise and try to defeat them. He subsequently invaded Belgium, the spark which ignited the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon and his forces were defeated at this battle, which would mark the final defeat of his reign.
4F- THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
The upset in Belgium at the Battle of Waterloo dealt a significant blow to Napoleon Bonaparte. After his defeat, leaders and diplomats from all over Europe had to decide what their next moves would be. They therefore converged and met in Austria, where they formed the Congress of Vienna from 1814 to 1815. As with any successful Congress, there was a list of goals they hoped to accomplish in the wake of Napoleon’s abdication, or his stepping down from the throne.
The major countries represented in the Congress were Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, the same nations that had prepared themselves against a war with Napoleon’s forces while he was conquering areas of Europe. One goal they had was to contain France after the Napoleonic Wars so as to restore order and balance. France’s borders were thus restored to their size from 1792, before Napoleon gained power. Any territories that were taken by Napoleon between 1795 and 1810 were swiftly returned.
The major countries represented in the Congress were Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, the same nations that had prepared themselves against a war with Napoleon’s forces while he was conquering areas of Europe. One goal they had was to contain France after the Napoleonic Wars so as to restore order and balance. France’s borders were thus restored to their size from 1792, before Napoleon gained power. Any territories that were taken by Napoleon between 1795 and 1810 were swiftly returned.
The representatives also wanted not only a balance of land control, but a balance of power among the European nations, as well. Germany was strengthened by combining more than 200 states into a 39-state confederation. The German Confederation, however, was not a strong body and would eventually dissolve within years.
It was also widely believed that the more legitimate rulers of Europe should be the ones in power. Traditional monarchs in France, Austria, England, and Russia were allowed to maintain their power within their countries. This move was known as the Conservative Order, and was done to contain any potential outbreaks of revolt and revolution. The members who attended the Congress of Vienna weren’t too keen on revolts, and it was their opinion that if the older monarchies were restored, then they had a better chance of discouraging uprisings.
It was also widely believed that the more legitimate rulers of Europe should be the ones in power. Traditional monarchs in France, Austria, England, and Russia were allowed to maintain their power within their countries. This move was known as the Conservative Order, and was done to contain any potential outbreaks of revolt and revolution. The members who attended the Congress of Vienna weren’t too keen on revolts, and it was their opinion that if the older monarchies were restored, then they had a better chance of discouraging uprisings.
After the bloodshed of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic Wars, those who were present at the Congress made it clear that an important goal was the preservation of peace and stability throughout Europe. Larger, more powerful nations were tasked with overseeing this goal, and throughout the Congress, territories and positions were among the countries in attendance. Russia, for instance, gained control over Poland and was allowed to keep Finland, while various individuals were restored to their high-ranking positions. For nearly 40 years, the peace and diplomacy achieved at this Congress would last in Europe.
4G- THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848
Toward the middle of the 19th century, France was not the only country to have found itself embroiled in uprisings, revolts, and revolutions. The Revolutions of 1848, as they are now remembered, were a series of political upheavals that took place throughout the continent of Europe. Although they were widespread, many of these revolutions fizzled out and collapsed within a year of their start date. The countries to find themselves in the midst of revolution included France, Germany, Poland, Italy, Denmark, and the Austrian Empire.
The primary causes for these revolutions stemmed from dissatisfaction with the monarchies which were at the helm of each country. The citizens were tired of feeling oppressed and controlled, and there was a widespread demand for democracy, versus a monarchy. Others were overwhelmingly angry at how neglectful their country’s monarchy could be, as food shortages and economic turmoil spread throughout various areas.
A strong sense of nationalism, in this case referring to the support of a country’s own political independence, was growing due to the fact that some countries had leaders belonging to other nations (for example, when Napoleon Bonaparte of France made his brother the King of Spain). Finally, the people had a demand for various liberties, such as freedom of the press.
Like many revolutions both past and modern, the leaders were groups of reformers and middle class workers, typically from urban areas as well as from the rural farmlands. These were the groups of people who felt misunderstood and disconnected from their monarchs, and it was a source of tension for them to see their country’s leaders living so lavishly while they endured famines.
Like many revolutions both past and modern, the leaders were groups of reformers and middle class workers, typically from urban areas as well as from the rural farmlands. These were the groups of people who felt misunderstood and disconnected from their monarchs, and it was a source of tension for them to see their country’s leaders living so lavishly while they endured famines.
Although many consider the revolutions to be failures, there were some positive outcomes which resulted. For one, serfdom was put to an end in Austria. This is the practice by which an individual, the serf, must work land and render services to the lord, who owned the land. Serfs had very few rights and were treated poorly. Denmark experienced an end to its monarchy under which the country had been ruled for almost 200 years.
Due to the fact that there were some divisions within the factions of people uprising, it was easy for counter-revolutions to quash their efforts thanks to a lack of organization and disagreements among the individuals. By the time the revolutions were finally stopped, thousands of people had lost their lives in the conflict. Today, there is widespread debate as to the success of the revolutions, with some historians pointing out that, if nothing else, the revolutions served to inspire reforms which would take place in the latter half of the century.
Due to the fact that there were some divisions within the factions of people uprising, it was easy for counter-revolutions to quash their efforts thanks to a lack of organization and disagreements among the individuals. By the time the revolutions were finally stopped, thousands of people had lost their lives in the conflict. Today, there is widespread debate as to the success of the revolutions, with some historians pointing out that, if nothing else, the revolutions served to inspire reforms which would take place in the latter half of the century.
4H- THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY
Nationalism and Enlightenment ideas energized people in Europe to push for more democratic forms of government in the 1800's. In Latin America and the Caribbean, it inspired people to revolt against European rule and seek to create their own nations. It also helped to unify people who felt they shared a common ancestry and culture to come together. This was the case with the unification of Italy and Germany.
In the mid 1800's, neither country existed yet. They were broken up into many smaller states that sometimes shared connections but other times fought for autonomy. However, the people in these states mostly shared the same language, culture, history, and religion; all the things that make up nationalist feelings.
In the mid 1800's, neither country existed yet. They were broken up into many smaller states that sometimes shared connections but other times fought for autonomy. However, the people in these states mostly shared the same language, culture, history, and religion; all the things that make up nationalist feelings.
Italian Unification
After the Congress of Vienna, the Italian Peninsula was still divided. The largest region was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilie, which was most of southern Italy. This area had been under Spanish and Austrian control before achieving independence. The kingdom was formed when the Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples, which was officially also known as the Kingdom of Sicily. Since both kingdoms were named Sicily, they were collectively known as the "Two Sicilies".
After the Congress of Vienna, the Italian Peninsula was still divided. The largest region was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilie, which was most of southern Italy. This area had been under Spanish and Austrian control before achieving independence. The kingdom was formed when the Kingdom of Sicily merged with the Kingdom of Naples, which was officially also known as the Kingdom of Sicily. Since both kingdoms were named Sicily, they were collectively known as the "Two Sicilies".
To the north, the Kingdom of Sardinia had been under Spanish and French control. In 1852, Count Cavour became Prime Minister of the state and sought to use political negotiation and conflict to help unify all of Italy. He allied with France and engineered a war with Austria that helped bring more land into the kingdom.
In southern Italy, Italian nationalists were led by Giuseppe Garibaldi. He led the Red Shirts, an army who wore bright red shirts into battle. They captured the island of Sicily and then crossed into the Italian mainland. They conquered Southern areas and agreed to unite with Piedmont-Sardinia in the north.
They agreed to hand over power to Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. Soon after the Austrian province of Venetia, home to the famous city of Venice joined.
Lastly, the Papal States, a large region of central Italy under the control of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church came under Italian control. When it did, the city of Rome became the new capital of a united Kingdom of Italy.
They agreed to hand over power to Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. Soon after the Austrian province of Venetia, home to the famous city of Venice joined.
Lastly, the Papal States, a large region of central Italy under the control of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church came under Italian control. When it did, the city of Rome became the new capital of a united Kingdom of Italy.
German Unification
There were over 30 German states that had an alliance known as the German Confederation. While the Austrian Empire usually dominated it, the state of Prussia took the lead in the unifying them into Germany.
In 1862, the King of Prussia Wilhelm I selected Otto von Bismarck to be his prime minister. Bismarck had a political philosophy known as “realpolitik”. This philosophy is based on practical objectives rather than on ideals and meant that Bismarck was willing to do whatever it took to achieve his goals.
There were over 30 German states that had an alliance known as the German Confederation. While the Austrian Empire usually dominated it, the state of Prussia took the lead in the unifying them into Germany.
In 1862, the King of Prussia Wilhelm I selected Otto von Bismarck to be his prime minister. Bismarck had a political philosophy known as “realpolitik”. This philosophy is based on practical objectives rather than on ideals and meant that Bismarck was willing to do whatever it took to achieve his goals.
Bismarck took control of the government and famously told his Parliament that, “ It is not by means of speeches and resolutions that the great issues of the day will be decided… but by blood and iron”.
Bismarck initiated a war with Austria known as the Seven Weeks War that brought Prussia more territory. He next helped to engineer a conflict with France over border states in 1870. This became the Franco-Prussian War and the Prussian victory was the final piece to unifying the German state.
The Prussian king Wilhelm I was crowned the Kaiser of the Second Reich (with Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire being the First Reich). Germany was now united and a large, powerful force in Europe.
Bismarck initiated a war with Austria known as the Seven Weeks War that brought Prussia more territory. He next helped to engineer a conflict with France over border states in 1870. This became the Franco-Prussian War and the Prussian victory was the final piece to unifying the German state.
The Prussian king Wilhelm I was crowned the Kaiser of the Second Reich (with Charlemagne’s Holy Roman Empire being the First Reich). Germany was now united and a large, powerful force in Europe.
4I- THE COLONIAL SYSTEM IN THE AMERICAS
Throughout the 19th century, countries such as Spain and Portugal would form colonies in the New World under the practice of colonialism, or the governance of one state over another. These areas were taken by force and often involved brutal tactics towards indigenous populations. Within these acquired lands, the “mother country” would set up systems modeled on their own countries as it related to religion, government, and other aspects of society. This meant keeping the indigenous people of those areas at the bottom.
As part of the colonial system, cities are seen as outposts of control for Europe. Catholicism was the dominant religion and colonies were to adhere to this as well as mirror the practices of their mother countries. Wealth during this time was usually gained through the mining of precious minerals like gold and silver. Mines were built in Spanish colonies and the native populations were forced to work in dark, dangerous conditions. Viceroys were the royal officials who ruled and oversaw all of these processes.
As part of the colonial system, cities are seen as outposts of control for Europe. Catholicism was the dominant religion and colonies were to adhere to this as well as mirror the practices of their mother countries. Wealth during this time was usually gained through the mining of precious minerals like gold and silver. Mines were built in Spanish colonies and the native populations were forced to work in dark, dangerous conditions. Viceroys were the royal officials who ruled and oversaw all of these processes.
Many people across the Americas, as you might expect, did not take kindly to the colonial system and fought for their independence. For over ten years, the island of Haiti struggled for independence in the form of a rebellion led by Toussaint L’Ouverture and other formerly enslaved people. The Haitian Revolution lasted from 1791 to 1804, and during that time, France and the Napoleonic armies were defeated, and the island saw the abolition of slavery. Haitian Independence Day is celebrated on January 1.
In Mexico, an independence movement was led by Miguel Hidalgo, who had formerly been a priest. He, as well as other Mexicans, were unhappy with Spain’s oppression of their country. On September 16, 1810, he led a march to Mexico City from the town of Dolores. His call for freedom, the “Grito de Dolores” is often considered the symbolic beginning of the independence movement. Although his efforts were quashed and he was eventually executed, September 16 is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, for Hidalgo’s efforts were among the first to try and renounce Spanish control over the country.
In South America, a young Creole named Simón Bolívar from Venezuela had begun to read the teachings of Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. Bolívar was also inspired by the vigor of the French Revolution, and made a promise to himself that he would liberate his country from Spanish rule. Additionally, Bolívar was upset that Napoleon Bonaparte of France had become such a dictatorial figure throughout Europe. Bolívar would be instrumental in leading northern Latin America to independence from Spanish rule and in overturning the rigid class system that plagued the area. Venezuela gained their independence on July 5, 1811
In South America, a young Creole named Simón Bolívar from Venezuela had begun to read the teachings of Enlightenment thinkers, such as John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. Bolívar was also inspired by the vigor of the French Revolution, and made a promise to himself that he would liberate his country from Spanish rule. Additionally, Bolívar was upset that Napoleon Bonaparte of France had become such a dictatorial figure throughout Europe. Bolívar would be instrumental in leading northern Latin America to independence from Spanish rule and in overturning the rigid class system that plagued the area. Venezuela gained their independence on July 5, 1811
Portugal had laid claim to the country of Brazil for more than three hundred years. Prince Dom Pedro, who was the son of the King of Portugal, took control of Brazil in 1821 when he and his family travelled there from their native Portugal. Since his father had to return to their home country, Dom Pedro acted as an almost stand-in for his father. During this time, he was encouraged to declare Brazilian independence from Portugal, which is exactly what he did. On September 7, 1822, he declared Brazil independent, and the country became a constitutional monarchy.
4J- SIMON BOLIVAR AND LATIN AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
Simón Bolívar was born in 1783 to a wealthy family in Venezuela, which at that time was a Spanish colony. As a native to the New World, Bolívar was considered a “creole” and not allowed to attain the highest offices in society. His education, however, included several years of study in Europe. He married while in Europe, but soon after the couple reached South America his wife died of yellow fever.
Bolívar then returned to Europe and met with several important thinkers and politicians. One of them told Bolívar that the Spanish-American colonies had vast natural resources that could make them powerful—if only they could become free from Spanish control.
Bolívar returned to South America and joined the independence movement. In 1810, a group of rebels in Venezuela removed the Spanish viceroy (governor) from office and took control of the colony.
The next year, Venezuela declared itself independent from Spain. In 1814, however, the Spanish fought back and Bolívar led an army that was forced to flee the country.
During his exile, he called for all Spanish colonies to rise up against European rule to “avenge three centuries of shame.” In 1814, he wrote a famous call to arms, The Letter from Jamaica, which outlined a plan to create republics reaching from Mexico to Argentina and Chile.
Bolívar returned to South America and joined the independence movement. In 1810, a group of rebels in Venezuela removed the Spanish viceroy (governor) from office and took control of the colony.
The next year, Venezuela declared itself independent from Spain. In 1814, however, the Spanish fought back and Bolívar led an army that was forced to flee the country.
During his exile, he called for all Spanish colonies to rise up against European rule to “avenge three centuries of shame.” In 1814, he wrote a famous call to arms, The Letter from Jamaica, which outlined a plan to create republics reaching from Mexico to Argentina and Chile.
After receiving help from the newly independent Haiti, Bolívar returned to Venezuela to face the largest army Spain had ever sent across the Atlantic. From 1815 to 1817, neither side won any decisive victories. However, Bolívar began to build the foundation of a victory. He declared the end of slavery to be one of his goals, thus winning greater support.
Bolívar made alliances with two groups of guerrilla soldiers, who harassed the Spanish army. Then in 1819, he devised a daring plan to cross the Andes Mountains and surprise the Spanish. His army of 2,000 first had to cross hot jungles, the Orinoco River, and freezing mountain passes. Many died, but Bolívar’s army was strong enough to defeat the Spanish in four decisive battles.
Bolívar made alliances with two groups of guerrilla soldiers, who harassed the Spanish army. Then in 1819, he devised a daring plan to cross the Andes Mountains and surprise the Spanish. His army of 2,000 first had to cross hot jungles, the Orinoco River, and freezing mountain passes. Many died, but Bolívar’s army was strong enough to defeat the Spanish in four decisive battles.
Bolívar returned to the city of Angostura, Venezuela, and joined a group working on creating a new government. At his urging, members voted to create the Republic of Gran Colombia, which would include modern Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. “The lessons of experience should not be lost on us,” he said. Europe had too many countries that constantly fought each other. “A single government,” he argued, “may use its great resources [to] lift us to the summit of power and prosperity.” Bolívar was named president and military dictator of the new republic.
Bolívar won formal independence for Venezuela in 1821 and Ecuador in 1822. He freed Peru from Spain in 1824 and Upper Peru in 1825, which renamed itself Bolivia. He was president of Gran Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Bolívar hoped that these nations would unite and thus become stronger. Others did not share this vision, however. Even Bolívar’s closest allies in the fight for independence believed that there should be several countries, not one large one. By 1826, civil war had broken out.
After a civil war broke out in 1826, Bolívar declared himself military dictator. Opponents attacked his palace and tried to assassinate him. The Liberator was now seen as an enemy of the state. Venezuela withdrew from Gran Colombia, and soon after Ecuador followed. Finally, with his body wracked by tuberculosis and his heart sick over the conflict, Bolívar retired in 1830 and died later that year.
Bolívar won formal independence for Venezuela in 1821 and Ecuador in 1822. He freed Peru from Spain in 1824 and Upper Peru in 1825, which renamed itself Bolivia. He was president of Gran Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Bolívar hoped that these nations would unite and thus become stronger. Others did not share this vision, however. Even Bolívar’s closest allies in the fight for independence believed that there should be several countries, not one large one. By 1826, civil war had broken out.
After a civil war broke out in 1826, Bolívar declared himself military dictator. Opponents attacked his palace and tried to assassinate him. The Liberator was now seen as an enemy of the state. Venezuela withdrew from Gran Colombia, and soon after Ecuador followed. Finally, with his body wracked by tuberculosis and his heart sick over the conflict, Bolívar retired in 1830 and died later that year.
4K- TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE AND THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION
Napoleon was one of the greatest generals who ever lived. But at the end of the 18th century a self-educated man who grew up enslaved and with no military training drove Napoleon out of Haiti and led his country to independence. The remarkable leader of this independence movement was Toussaint Breda (later called Toussaint L'Ouverture).
It began in 1791 in the French colony of Saint Dominique (later Haiti). Though born into slavery in Saint Dominique, Toussaint learned of Africa from his father, who had been born a free man there. He learned that he was more than the horrific situation forced upon him, that he was a man with brains and dignity. Toussaint learned to read and write and read every book he could get his hands on. He particularly admired the writings of the French Enlightenment philosophers, who spoke of individual rights and equality.
In 1789, the French Revolution rocked France. The sugar plantations of Saint Dominique, though far away, would never be the same. Spurred on by such Enlightenment thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, some early revolutionaries began to question the European use of slavery in the Americas. Those moderate revolutionaries were not willing to end slavery but they did apply the "Rights of Man" to all Frenchmen, including its Black and mixed race population. Plantation owners in the colonies were furious and fought the measure. Finally the revolutionaries gave in and retracted the measure in 1791.
In 1789, the French Revolution rocked France. The sugar plantations of Saint Dominique, though far away, would never be the same. Spurred on by such Enlightenment thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, some early revolutionaries began to question the European use of slavery in the Americas. Those moderate revolutionaries were not willing to end slavery but they did apply the "Rights of Man" to all Frenchmen, including its Black and mixed race population. Plantation owners in the colonies were furious and fought the measure. Finally the revolutionaries gave in and retracted the measure in 1791.
The news of this betrayal triggered mass slave revolts in Saint Dominique, and Toussaint became the leader of the rebellion. He became known as Toussaint L'Ouverture (the one who finds an opening) and brilliantly led his army of formerly enslaved Haitians.
He successfully fought the French (who helped by succumbing to yellow fever in large numbers) as well as invading Spanish and British armies who attempted to suppress the rebellion as well.
He successfully fought the French (who helped by succumbing to yellow fever in large numbers) as well as invading Spanish and British armies who attempted to suppress the rebellion as well.
By 1793, the revolution in France was in the hands of the Jacobins, the most radical of the revolutionary groups. This group, led by Maximilian Robespierre, was responsible for the Reign of Terror, a campaign to rid France of “enemies of the revolution.” Though the Jacobins brought indiscriminate death to France, they were also idealists who wanted to take the revolution as far as it could go.
So they again considered the issue of “equality” and voted to end slavery in the French colonies, including what was now known as Haiti.
There was jubilation among the blacks in Haiti, and Toussaint agreed to help the French army eject the British and Spanish. Toussaint proved to be a brilliant general, winning 7 battles in 7 days. He became a de facto governor of the colony.
So they again considered the issue of “equality” and voted to end slavery in the French colonies, including what was now known as Haiti.
There was jubilation among the blacks in Haiti, and Toussaint agreed to help the French army eject the British and Spanish. Toussaint proved to be a brilliant general, winning 7 battles in 7 days. He became a de facto governor of the colony.
In France the Jacobins lost power. People finally tired of blood flowing in the streets and sent Maximilian Robespierre to the guillotine, ending the Reign of Terror. A reaction set in. The French people wanted to get back to business. More moderate leaders came and went, eventually replaced by Napoleon, who ruled France with dictatorial powers. He responded to the pleas of the plantation owners by reinstating slavery in the French colonies, once again plunging Haiti into war.
By 1803 Napoleon was ready to get Haiti off his back: he and Toussaint agreed to terms of peace. Napoleon agreed to recognize Haitian independence and Toussaint agreed to retire from public life. A few months later, the French invited Toussaint to come to a negotiating meeting with full safe conduct. When he arrived, the French (at Napoleon's orders) betrayed the safe conduct and arrested him, putting him on a ship headed for France. Napoleon ordered that Toussaint be placed in a prison dungeon in the mountains, and murdered by means of cold, starvation, and neglect. Toussaint died in prison, but others carried on the fight for freedom.
Six months later, Napoleon decided to give up his possessions in the New World. He was busy in Europe and these far-away possessions were more trouble than they were worth. He abandoned Haiti to independence and sold the French territory in North America to the United States (the Louisiana Purchase).
By 1803 Napoleon was ready to get Haiti off his back: he and Toussaint agreed to terms of peace. Napoleon agreed to recognize Haitian independence and Toussaint agreed to retire from public life. A few months later, the French invited Toussaint to come to a negotiating meeting with full safe conduct. When he arrived, the French (at Napoleon's orders) betrayed the safe conduct and arrested him, putting him on a ship headed for France. Napoleon ordered that Toussaint be placed in a prison dungeon in the mountains, and murdered by means of cold, starvation, and neglect. Toussaint died in prison, but others carried on the fight for freedom.
Six months later, Napoleon decided to give up his possessions in the New World. He was busy in Europe and these far-away possessions were more trouble than they were worth. He abandoned Haiti to independence and sold the French territory in North America to the United States (the Louisiana Purchase).
L'Ouverture gradually established control over the whole island and used his keen political and military influence to gain dominance over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Haiti. Worried about the economy, which had stalled, he restored the plantation system using paid labor; negotiated trade agreements with the United Kingdom and the United States; and maintained a large and well-trained army.
Though L'Ouverture died in 1803, the Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on January 1, 1804, thereby establishing the sovereign nation of Haiti.
Though L'Ouverture died in 1803, the Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence on January 1, 1804, thereby establishing the sovereign nation of Haiti.