CHAPTER 2- WORLD WAR 1 (UNIT 4)
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2A. MARCHING TOWARD WAR
Although the First World War officially began in 1914, the conflict between the countries involved had been steadily brewing since the late 1800s. At the time, it was referred to as The Great War due to the sheer destruction and casualties that resulted. There were several long-term causes that led up to it. These included militarism, imperialism, nationalism, and alliances.
Militarism had been growing since the industrial revolution. New weapons of war were developed including machine guns, tanks, airplanes, and submarines. Each nation thought these new weapons could bring them swift victories in war. However, they would soon discover the opposite to be true in World War 1.
Adding to the apprehension in the early 1900s was imperialism. While the 1884 Berlin Conference saw Europeans divide up Africa peacefully, there were still rivalries and tension between the nations of Europe. Smaller conflicts were fought over territory and imperialism led to distrust among the European powers.
Nationalism was another major cause of WW1. Nationalism is an intense patriotism and loyalty to one's country. It leads people to believe that they were superior. This manifested itself in 1871 when Germany took the Alsace-Lorraine region from France during the Franco-Prussian War.
This war, which lasted from 1870 to 1871, was fought between France and the German state of Prussia. Both sides in the conflict thought themselves superior and deserving of the disputed territory in between them.
The following year, Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary formed the Triple Alliance against France, an alliance they would hold at the outbreak of World War I. This alliance is more commonly known as the Central Powers because the nations are in the center of Europe.
During this time, Prussia - and soon after, the entirety of Germany - was ruled by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who was well-respected by his people and by other high-ranking German politicians. He was, however, at odds with the much younger and militaristic German Emperor, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who forced von Bismarck to resign in 1890. Because of von Bismarck’s policies regarding isolation, many feel that if he had stayed in power, Germany would not have entered World War I.
The other European powers of France, Britain, and Russia realized they needed their own alliance to protect themselves against the Central Powers. They called their alliance the Triple Entente, but they are more commonly known as the Allies.
Nations thought this policy of making strong alliances would prevent war. Instead, it did the opposite. Instead of just two nations going to war over a small conflict, the alliances pulled in many countries.
As the 1900s began, tensions increased rapidly, starting with Austria’s takeover of Bosnia and Herzegovina in October of 1908.
Angered over Austria-Hungary’s takeover of his native Bosnia, a young man named Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo, Bosnia in June of 1914.
This was the spark or immediate cause that started World War 1. In July, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and their alliances soon pulled the rest of Europe into the war. A bloody, multi-country war would thus go on for the next four years.
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2B. TIMELINE OF WORLD WAR 1
World War 1 began in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. While this was the immediate cause, there are four long-term main causes: militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.
Militarism is the policy of building a stronger military force, either for added defense or to flex military muscle for influence.
An alliance is a mutual defense agreement between countries; it states that one country will go to war with and fight as an ally for another country.
Imperialism is a policy held by a country of increasing power and wealth by acquiring additional territories.
Finally, nationalism is an intense loyalty and pride in one’s country, to the point of feeling superior to others.
These four elements led to the explosion of war after Franz Ferdinand's assassination. The Germans entered the war with a plan for victory, named the Schlieffen Plan for the German officer who devised it.
This plan was to avoid a prolonged war on two fronts, or sides. Germany hoped to swiftly defeat the Russian army in the east before turning its sights on the French army in the west.
In September of 1914, France and Germany engaged in the Battle of the Marne, wherein France’s army surprised the German forces who were stationed near the Marne River. After days of fighting, the German forces finally retreated despite their plan for victory.
In February of 1915, the Allied Powers embarked on the Gallipoli Campaign, which was their attempt to control the sea route from Europe to Russia. It was named for the location of the campaign, off the coast of modern-day Turkey. The campaign, however, was not successful and was a major victory for the Ottoman Empire.
For a period of 10 months, French and German forces engaged in the Battle of Verdun from February to December of 1916, making it the longest single battle of WWI. It was significant in that it was the first time flamethrowers were used, and it resulted in massive loss of life. French forces, however, emerged victorious.
During the Battle of Verdun, the British attacked to take pressure off of the French, an event which became known as the Battle of the Somme. This battle saw the first use of tanks and was another long, deadly battle.
After the 1915 sinking of the Lusitania, Germany's continued unrestricted submarine warfare, and the 1917 Zimmerman Telegram, America was prompted to join the war. The American presence had a tremendous impact, as French and British troops were exhausted after three years of intense fighting. The fresh American "doughboys" and supplies proved to be the difference for an Allied victory.
Just as America was mobilizing and joining the war, Russia was exiting. Heavy losses, increased poverty, and an ineffectual leader in Czar Nicholas II led to rioting in Russia.
The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin overthrew the government in 1917 and agreed to an armistice in December.
Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, officially ending their fighting.
France, England, and the United States continued the war, however, until an armistice for all nations was agreed to on November 11, 1918.
Germany officially surrendered and the Allies were victorious. This day is remembered in history as Armistice Day, but has become Veteran's Day in the United States.
2C. THE ZIMMERMAN TELEGRAM
The United States was successful in staying out of World War I for three years. From 1914 to 1916, the U.S. watched as Europe plunged into brutal deadly trench warfare.
However, most Americans had sympathy for the Allies, especially after 128 Americans were killed when a German U-boat sunk the Lusitania ocean liner.
Still, President Woodrow Wilson's 1916 re-election campaign slogan was, "He kept us out of war."
In early 1917, a top secret message would be intercepted that would finally draw the U.S. into the Great War.
In January of 1917, a telegram was sent by the German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmerman to the German Minister to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckhardt.
In this secret diplomatic communication, Zimmerman proposed that Germany and Mexico forge a military alliance. In his proposal, he stated that if the United States - who at the time was neutral - entered the war on the Allied side, then Germany and Mexico would move forward with the plans for a secret alliance.
He promised that if Mexico helped Germany in the war effort, then Germany could guarantee U.S. territory would be returned to Mexico. This included the states of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.
This was the land ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 after the Mexican–American War.
Zimmerman also promised to support a Mexican-led attack on the United States.
The telegram was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. When they realized the message, the British swiftly reported their findings to the United States.
As a response, President Woodrow Wilson recommended that the U.S. begin arming its ships.
The U.S. also made the Zimmerman telegram public and it appeared on the front pages of newspapers across the country. The contents of the telegram outraged the American public, and calls for the United States’ entrance into the war became loud and robust.
Finally, the country formally entered World War I in April 1917.
2D. UNDERSTANDING WORLD WAR 1 PROPAGANDA
World War 1 was fought for reasons that were not entirely clear to most of the general public. Tangled alliances brought in nations disconnected from the assassination of Franz Ferdinand that started the war. As a result, governments felt they needed to use propaganda, or targeted ads and media campaigns to persuade the public to support the war efforts during World War I.
Propaganda as we know it today might come in the form of commercials, but in the early 1900s, these were artfully drawn posters and newspaper ads whose goal was to get people to fully support the war effort. They were used to encourage men to join the war, to conserve important resources like gasoline, and to create negative feelings and opinions against the enemy forces in the war.
The first batch of propaganda posters and ads targeted young and able-bodied men. This type of poster was not just used in the United States, but in most countries embroiled in World War I.
A popular design was to feature a member of the army or a fictional character, such as America's Uncle Sam, pointing and telling the person who was looking at the poster to join in the war effort.
Some of these posters were more direct, while others preached a message of unity. This form of propaganda therefore acted as a call to arms to have men enlist in the army to fulfill a patriotic duty.
Another type of poster was used to instill fear in the American public, typically by depicting the enemy (usually Germany) as some monster to be scared of.
It was not uncommon for posters to feature images of Germans with big weapons, Germans as fierce gorillas invading American shores and taking prisoners, or pictures of exploded buildings that put blame on German bombs.
A third type of propaganda targeted American citizens who were home and encouraged them to conserve important resources. This included calls to save gasoline so that there was more for the military.
It was in this way that the government encouraged rationing, or a system which allows people to only have so much of a particular item so that it might be saved for someone else. People not only rationed gasoline, but household staples such as butter, wheat, fish, meat, and sugar.
Americans could also help to finance the war by purchasing Liberty Bonds. These bonds that were issued by the American government as a way to raise money that they would not have to pay back until after the war.
Citizens bought these bonds, the money went to the government to fund the war effort, and people held onto them until they "matured" in 10 or 15 years.
Posters encouraging people to buy bonds made it seem as though giving money toward the war was just as important as fighting in it. This often made Americans of any culture or background feel as though they could contribute without having to be drafted.
2E. NEW WEAPONS OF WORLD WAR 1
The Industrial Revolution of the 1800s paved the way for incredible technological advances in weapons of war. World War 1 was one of the first industrialized conflicts and saw advanced, mass-produced weaponry that totally changed how wars were fought.
While some political leaders of the time thought this would bring a speedy end to war, it in fact did the opposite. New industrialized warfare led to massive casualties and a long, brutal conflict.
The new weapons which were used at sea included submarines, torpedoes, and seaplanes.
Submarines, known as U-boats in Germany, were usually equipped with torpedoes that could be fired underwater to sink enemy ships.
Seaplanes were also used to attack enemy ships, providing for two different fronts on which vessels could be destroyed: underwater and overhead.
In terms of firearms, soldiers had new weapons at their disposal which could cause massive damage.
Their use of advanced artillery, mortars, and machine guns turned battlefields into a "no man's land" where no one could survive.
Mortars were especially effective as a firearm due to the destruction they caused. These oversized bullets were loaded into large mortar guns and fired at enemy trenches.
The large explosions they caused meant that troops did not have to be close or accurate to inflict damage upon the enemy.
When it came to weapons in the air, airplanes and zeppelins were used for the first time in World War 1. At first, planes and zeppelins were used for reconnaissance; to see where troops were on the ground.
However, it wasn't long before machine guns were mounted to planes and the first "dogfights" between planes in the sky began.
Finally, the combination of weapons used on land were unlike anything witnessed in war. Flamethrowers, poison gas, tanks, and grenades were employed extensively on the battlefields of Europe.
Mustard gas, for instance, was a dangerous type of gas that had a garlicky-scent to it and was slightly yellow in color. This type of gas could be expelled into enemy trenches, causing anyone in its wake to experience a burning sensation of the eyes, skin, nose, and lungs.
Taken together, this new weaponry changed the way war was fought. No longer were soldiers required to be in close proximity to the enemy, and they could move more quickly and effectively, which resulted in some cases in mass destruction. The weaponry that was introduced during World War I would change combat forever.
2F. WORLD WAR 1 AT HOME
Shortly after America’s entrance into World War I, the United States government took unprecedented steps to ensure the American public supported the war effort. These steps included the creation of various agencies and committees, as well as the passage of controversial new law.
In July of 1917, the War Industries Board was created to oversee the production of war materials, as well as the purchasing of necessary war supplies. Simply put, the WIB was tasked with ensuring that the American soldiers had the equipment, clothing, and weaponry they needed to be successful.
The WIB also made sure that the Navy had everything they needed to fight, as well. They did this by encouraging large scale factories to begin producing wartime materials, such as tanks, machine guns, and bullets.
It was common for an automobile factory to halt their production of cars so that they could start making tanks if instructed to do so by the WIB.
In the late summer of 1917, President Woodrow Wilson signed two executive orders which would create the Food Administration and the Federal Fuel Administration.
Food Administration was tasked with ensuring that there was enough food overseas for the army and its allies. The price of wheat was also stabilized and the Food Administration led campaigns to encourage rationing food as well as donating it.
Similarly, the Federal Fuel Administration oversaw the use of coal and oil so that enough could be reserved for the troops. It encouraged energy conservation efforts and Daylight Savings Time was first introduced. The country temporarily turned its clocks one hour ahead so that people did not use as much energy in lighting their homes and made better use of daylight.
The National War Labor Board was established in 1918 to settle labor disputes. The Board supported an 8-hour work day, equal pay for women, and the right for workers to organize themselves and to bargain collectively for their rights. Despite these positions, the Board was not in favor of laborers going on strike, as it was seen as a disruption.
From 1917 to 1919, the Committee on Public Information was actively in operation to influence public opinion and swing it in support of the war. The committee relied heavily on propaganda to encourage people to either enlist in the war effort or generate enthusiasm through participation efforts.
The most controversial action the government took was the passage of the Espionage Act of 1917. This law made it a crime to interfere with military operations and recruitment or to support an enemy during wartime.
The next year, the government went further and passed the Sedition Act of 1918. This further limited freedom of speech and made it a crime to speak, "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the government, flag, or armed forces.
Eugene V. Debs, a socialist leader, labor organizer, and 4-time presidential candidate was convicted under the Sedition Act and sentenced to 10 years in prison for a speech he gave on the war.
Debs would run for president again in 1920 from his prison cell and received over 900,000 votes.
Over 2,000 people were arrested and charged by the government under the Espionage and Sedition Acts and more than 1,000 were convicted. The Supreme Court upheld the law in the 1919 Schenck v. United States case which established the “clear and present danger” test.
While Sedition Act was eventually repealed by Congress, the Espionage Act remains as law.
2g. THE 14 POINTS AND TREATY OF VERSAILLES
In early 1918, the end of World War 1 was finally in sight. President Woodrow Wilson wanted nothing more than to assure the American public and Europeans that a war of this nature would never again occur.
Wilson drafted and read his proposal to Congress, a multi-step plan that he titled The 14 Points. When fighting finally ended after the armistice in November 1918, a conference was planned to take place in France. Wilson took his 14 Points to the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919.
Some of Wilson's Points were adopted. However, the conference was contentious, with each Allied leader looking out for their own interests. The result of the conference would be the Treaty of Versailles, one of the most controversial peace treaties in history.
As far as his original 14 Points was concerned, Wilson proposed an end to secret alliances, for he had seen the effects of countries forming secretive military relationships with one another. He also encouraged self-determination for conquered colonies, freedom of the seas, and promoted open trade. He also advocated for Italy’s borders to be redrawn.
The Treaty of Versailles, on the other hand, mainly featured components designed to punish Germany. Many of the leaders who attended the Paris Peace Conference were upset with Germany, and they wanted to impose harsh penalties.
France and England's leaders insisted the treaty stipulate that Germany give up its colonies and pay reparations, or money owed to other countries that experienced damages and casualties during the war.
This essentially put the blame on Germany for the war, and the treaty made it all but necessary that Germany accept that blame. In return, the treaty stated that the Allied soldiers would leave Germany if all the requirements were adhered to.
There were nevertheless some shared components between Wilson’s 14 Points and the Treaty of Versailles. Namely, both called for a reduction of armed forces in Germany. German soldiers would also be removed from its territories, while any territories which were taken from France would be returned.
Belgium would also be granted its independence, and new nation states would be born from the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires, namely Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Turkey.
Finally, the two documents both featured the creation of the League of Nations. This would be an international organization with a mission to maintain world peace. It was designed to prevent future wars through collective security, disarmament, and by settling international disputes through negotiation.
Unfortunately for Wilson, American politicians thought the League of Nations would end up dragging the U.S. into war, instead of preventing it. Congress refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and America never joined the League of Nations.
2H. THE BIG 4 AT VERSAILLES
The Paris Peace Conference of January 1919 brought together leaders from the Allied powers during World War I. They came to be known as the Big Four.
President Woodrow Wilson was joined by Prime Ministers David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and George Clemenceau of France. All four of them came to the peace conference prepared with their own vision and goals for the treaty which would ultimately end World War 1.
Drawing on his 14 Points, which was a declaration he had read before Congress a year earlier, President Wilson believed that the goal of the treaty should be to create a lasting peace. Wilson wanted the Great War to be the one which would end all future wars, and he felt that could not happen unless global peace was established.
In order to ensure a long-lasting peace, Wilson advocated for the creation of a peace-keeping organization known as the League of Nations, which would solve disputes and prevent future large-scale conflicts. In good faith, he also asserted that Germany should be treated fairly following the end of the war.
Clemenceau of France took a harsher approach when it came to Germany, asserting that they should be punished and take the blame for starting the war. He, like many other French citizens, believed that Germany owed them the land they had taken years earlier, such as the Alsace-Lorraine territory that was conceded to Germany in 1871. Clemenceau represented his people who were still bitter over this territorial conquest.
Orlando of Italy also expected a land deal out of the agreement. Back in 1915, Italy had entered a secret agreement with France, Britain, and Russia, and in return for entering the war, the three had promised that Italy would receive various territories. Orlando argued that it was time Italy got what it was promised, namely the areas of Trieste and southern Tyrol.
Finally, Lloyd George of Britain wanted to ensure that a treaty would protect the British navy. Although he also wanted Germany to pay for having caused the war, he was not as bitter nor pessimistic as Clemenceau. Lloyd George made it clear that he envisioned his country having the ability to trade with Germany in the future.
Six months after the conference, the Allies would sign the Treaty of Versailles with Germany in June of 1919, effectively ending the Great War and concluding the peace talks.
2I. UNDERSTANDING THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
On June 18, 1919, exactly five years to the day of Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, officially ending World War 1. This Treaty would go on to become one of history's most infamous, as it left many people bitter at its provisions.
Initially, France - who was represented by George Clemenceau - wanted to punish Germany for the war they felt the Germans had caused. France wanted to regain its territory in the Rhineland.
Great Britain sought reparations, or payments for damages, from Germany. It also wanted to prevent any future squabbles with the country in hopes for a future trade relationship.
President Wilson, representing the United States, hoped to create a lasting global peace through the creation of a peace-keeping league. He also wanted to maintain fairness to Germany, even though the other countries placed blame on Germany for the war.
The key components of the treaty did not favor Germany. The country was forced to accept full responsibility for the war and all the damages incurred.
This was written into the treaty under Article 231, also known as the War Guilt Clause. Germany was also made to disarm its military, give up its colonies across the globe, and pay reparations to the Allies.
Wilson got his wish in the creation of the League of Nations, an international organization with a mission to maintain world peace.
The League of Nations established the Mandate System for administering former colonies. Areas of Africa and the Middle East would come under control by the Allied Powers. France was given mandate power over Syria, Lebanon, and Cameroon. Great Britain oversaw Iraq and areas of West Africa.
Germans detested the War Guilt Clause and took it as an insult to their country. Additionally, the immense reparations they were forced to pay led to "hyperinflation" and destroyed the economy of the new German government: the Weimar Republic.
On the other side of the globe, the U.S. Senate was unhappy with the League of Nations. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge led the objections and felt that it could draw the U.S. into more conflicts. Therefore, the U.S. never ratified the Treaty of Versailles, and never joined the League of Nations.