CHAPTER 17- UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY
17.1- WHAT IS FOREIGN POLICY?
Foreign policy is the plan that a government develops and the actions it takes in its relationships with other countries. Like other nations, the United States develops foreign policy to protect its interests. Our foreign policy has several goals.
It Protects American Citizens:
One of the first jobs of any government is to protect its people. Foreign policy includes plans to keep our borders secure and to keep our citizens, wherever they may be, safe from foreign enemies. Foreign policy preserves national security. It includes the actions we take to defend ourselves. Two examples of foreign policy for national security include:
We need a peaceful world. you will hear people say, "We are not the world's policeman," and that may be true. But our quality of life depends on the people, resources, and ideas that come from all over the world. Our businesses are international. Our communication systems are international. Our lives and those of our allies require world peace. Our foreign policy therefore, involves making treaties, forming alliances, and maintaining relations with other countries.
It Supports Democracy:
American foreign policy supports other democratic nations. We believe that a democratic form of government is the best form humans have been able to put together. Through democracy, the world has achieved the greatest degree of human freedom and the highest standard of living for the greatest number of people in human history. Our foreign policy works to help other nations move toward democracy.
It Provides Humanitarian Assistance:
America recognizes it has a special role in the world. We have enormous resources. Where there is suffering in the world, Americans reach out to help. When we provide that help through our government, then it becomes a part of our foreign policy. Some areas we work in include:
It Protects American Citizens:
One of the first jobs of any government is to protect its people. Foreign policy includes plans to keep our borders secure and to keep our citizens, wherever they may be, safe from foreign enemies. Foreign policy preserves national security. It includes the actions we take to defend ourselves. Two examples of foreign policy for national security include:
- Directing the armed forces- Decisions about how our armed forces will react to events in the world are a part of our foreign policy. Will we help another country with it's battles? Will we send advisors to train foreign troops? Will we give weapons? Will we send in our own troops? these are difficult questions. Our policy helps answer them.
- Developing new weapons to protect against new threats- Some in the world view our strength as a protection to help bring world peace. Others see new weapons, especially nuclear ones, as increasing world danger. We have treaties with other countries about weapons development. What are we willing to agree to? How do we make agreements? These questions are answered by foreign policy.
We need a peaceful world. you will hear people say, "We are not the world's policeman," and that may be true. But our quality of life depends on the people, resources, and ideas that come from all over the world. Our businesses are international. Our communication systems are international. Our lives and those of our allies require world peace. Our foreign policy therefore, involves making treaties, forming alliances, and maintaining relations with other countries.
It Supports Democracy:
American foreign policy supports other democratic nations. We believe that a democratic form of government is the best form humans have been able to put together. Through democracy, the world has achieved the greatest degree of human freedom and the highest standard of living for the greatest number of people in human history. Our foreign policy works to help other nations move toward democracy.
It Provides Humanitarian Assistance:
America recognizes it has a special role in the world. We have enormous resources. Where there is suffering in the world, Americans reach out to help. When we provide that help through our government, then it becomes a part of our foreign policy. Some areas we work in include:
- Disaster relief- including bringing aid to victims of floods, hurricanes, and droughts, as well as refugees escaping warfare.
- Global environment- working with other nations to fight air and water pollution.
- Health- fighting epidemics, providing medicines, helping to build hospitals and train health care workers.
- Hunger- providing food from our farms for people starving around the world.
17.2- WHO DECIDES FOREIGN POLICY?
The Constitution divides the responsibility for deciding and implementing foreign policy between the executive branch and Congress. Other groups try to advance their own interests and opinions.
The Executive Branch:
The President has the primary responsibility for deciding USS foreign policy. He selects and uses expert advisors to gather information and to advise him. These experts work in four executive departments and organizations.
Congress:
The Constitution gives Congress important responsibilities in four significant areas. Only Congress may:
At times, in response to emergencies, the President has sent troops into areas without a formal declaration of war. Often this leads to debate about whether he has overstepped his power. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act. It requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours after her has sent troops into a dangerous situation. Congress then has 60 days to approve the operation, or the troops must be withdrawn.
Groups Outside Government:
US foreign policy affects the lives and business activities of many people. As a result, citizens, business and interest groups, and foreign government and companies try to influence it.
Domestic Groups
Many domestic groups lobby Congress on foreign policy issues, including:
Public Opinion
The President and other elected lawmakers pay attention to the opinions of American voters. But American lawmakers also need to be aware of how people in other countries view the actions and policies of the United states, because those opinions influence how foreign leaders and governments act.
Mass Media
United States lawmakers who decide foreign policy are affected by the media and what the media reports to the voting public. US foreign policy makers, however, are also influenced by how the foreign press, or the media in other countries, shapes public and government opinions in those nations.
Foreign Countries
Many foreign nations lobby the United States government to:
Foreign Companies
Many foreign companies also lobby American lawmakers because they want to:
How to Influence Foreign Policy
United States citizens can influence foreign policy in several ways.
The Executive Branch:
The President has the primary responsibility for deciding USS foreign policy. He selects and uses expert advisors to gather information and to advise him. These experts work in four executive departments and organizations.
- The State Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is a Cabinet member. The Secretary of State acts as chief diplomats include the ambassadors and their staffs that work in our embassies- the official US government offices in foreign countries. The State Department connects America with the rest of the world.
- The National Security Council (NSC) The NSC is a group of top advisors who help to coordinate the activities of the different parts of government in their dealings with national security issues. It consists of the president, the vice president, the secretaries of defense, and state, and other advisors such as the CIA Director, the White House Chief of Staff, and the National Security Advisor. The NSC provides the President with intelligence- information about the activities of our enemies and our allies. By combining all of this information from all these sources, members of the NSC can give a very accurate picture of what is going on.
- The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) The CIA analyzes and gathers intelligence from numerous sources about foreign nations, organizations, and people. It uses methods that are both overt (public or open) and covert (hidden or secret) such as spying.
- The Department of Defense (DOD) The DOD has its main offices in the Pentagon in Washington DC. It is managed by the Secretary of Defense and oversees all military activities. In its foreign policy role, it provides expert military information and advice.
Congress:
The Constitution gives Congress important responsibilities in four significant areas. Only Congress may:
- Declare War- Although the President is military Commander-in-Chief, only Congress can commit the nation to going to war.
- Approve Treaties- The US Senate has to ratify all treaties- agreements with other countries made by the executive branch. A proposed treaty needs a two-thirds Senate vote to be approved.
- Ratify Appointments- The Senate has the power to approve key foreign policy appointments including:
- Secretary of State
- Secretary of Defense
- Ambassadors- chief US diplomats in other countries.
- Approve Funds- Congress approves all federal spending. When the President and his foreign policy advisors want new weapons, or money to pay for foreign policy activities, they must seek approval from Congress.
At times, in response to emergencies, the President has sent troops into areas without a formal declaration of war. Often this leads to debate about whether he has overstepped his power. In 1973, Congress passed the War Powers Act. It requires the President to notify Congress within 48 hours after her has sent troops into a dangerous situation. Congress then has 60 days to approve the operation, or the troops must be withdrawn.
Groups Outside Government:
US foreign policy affects the lives and business activities of many people. As a result, citizens, business and interest groups, and foreign government and companies try to influence it.
Domestic Groups
Many domestic groups lobby Congress on foreign policy issues, including:
- Farmers- who want to sell crops to foreign countries and reduce domestic- US made- competition for their products.
- Labor Unions- who want to keep jobs from going abroad and foreign manufactured goods from being less expensive to American consumers than those they make. Unions lobby for trade agreements that help sell American goods to other countries.
- Manufacturers- who want to be able to make and sell American products overseas and who also want protection against cheaper, competing foreign imports. Businesses also want their operations in foreign countries- including investments, factories, workers- to be safe.
- Think tanks- that employ scholars and researchers to work on policy issues. They gather information, study data, and make proposals that suggest directions US policy might take.
Public Opinion
The President and other elected lawmakers pay attention to the opinions of American voters. But American lawmakers also need to be aware of how people in other countries view the actions and policies of the United states, because those opinions influence how foreign leaders and governments act.
Mass Media
United States lawmakers who decide foreign policy are affected by the media and what the media reports to the voting public. US foreign policy makers, however, are also influenced by how the foreign press, or the media in other countries, shapes public and government opinions in those nations.
Foreign Countries
Many foreign nations lobby the United States government to:
- Obtain foreign aid or loans.
- Get favorable tariff and trade terms for their products.
- Receive military assistance to protect their borders and to deal with internal strife.
- Convince the United States to purchase goods or raw materials from them.
Foreign Companies
Many foreign companies also lobby American lawmakers because they want to:
- Sell their products in the United States
- Operate in the United States- have business offices and factories here, ands sometimes move their managers to the United States.
- Obtain loans to start up or expand their businesses.
How to Influence Foreign Policy
United States citizens can influence foreign policy in several ways.
- Through a career choice. If you are interested in travel to foreign countries, meeting people from other parts of the world, and being part of American foreign policy, you might want to consider a job in the State Department, the US Foreign Service, journalism, or international business.
- By electing officials. Most candidates for national office let the public know where they stand on important foreign policy issues. you can choose people who believe as you do.
- By joining with others. There's strength in numbers. Join groups whose views are the same as yours. Participate in their activities to influence government.
- By boycotting foreign products. The practice of boycotting- refusing to buy a particular product- was used by the American colonists against English tea. It still works as a way to express disagreements with a nations policies.
17.3- TOOLS OF FOREIGN POLICY
Foreign policy is a part of a political process that uses different tools or strategies. Four of the most effective methods include:
1- Diplomacy:
The most basic activity of foreign policy makers is diplomacy- the process of reaching a peaceful agreement with a foreign nation through discussion. All sides have to give a little for negotiations to be successful.
2- Alliances:
One result of diplomatic success is an alliance- an agreement between two or more nations, in which the countries involved agree to defend each other in a time of war. Potential enemies know that the allies will aid one another if attacked. An alliance can also be formed to encourage trade among nations.
Example: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) promotes and regulates trade among Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
3- Foreign Aid:
Foreign aid can take the form of money, arms or goods given by the United States, to another country. Sometimes, foreign aid is given in exchange for something the US government wants, such as permission to set up a military base in a foreign country, purchase of American products, or a promise to stop human rights violations.
Example: During the Afghanistan conflict, the US provided tons of food to the starving Afghan people to stabilize the situation, create goodwill towards the United States, and reduce human misery.
4- Intelligence:
Information about foreign governments- what they are doing and what they are capable of doing- is called intelligence. Intelligence informs our policy makers. It is used to protect the American homeland and US interests overseas from terrorist and other enemy threats.
1- Diplomacy:
The most basic activity of foreign policy makers is diplomacy- the process of reaching a peaceful agreement with a foreign nation through discussion. All sides have to give a little for negotiations to be successful.
2- Alliances:
One result of diplomatic success is an alliance- an agreement between two or more nations, in which the countries involved agree to defend each other in a time of war. Potential enemies know that the allies will aid one another if attacked. An alliance can also be formed to encourage trade among nations.
Example: The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) promotes and regulates trade among Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
3- Foreign Aid:
Foreign aid can take the form of money, arms or goods given by the United States, to another country. Sometimes, foreign aid is given in exchange for something the US government wants, such as permission to set up a military base in a foreign country, purchase of American products, or a promise to stop human rights violations.
Example: During the Afghanistan conflict, the US provided tons of food to the starving Afghan people to stabilize the situation, create goodwill towards the United States, and reduce human misery.
4- Intelligence:
Information about foreign governments- what they are doing and what they are capable of doing- is called intelligence. Intelligence informs our policy makers. It is used to protect the American homeland and US interests overseas from terrorist and other enemy threats.
17.4- HISTORY OF FOREIGN POLICY
US foreign policy has changed over time from isolationism- avoiding involvement in foreign military alliances and wars- to active involvement in world issues and peacekeeping.
Ben Franklin and the French:
From the very first days of our nation, the country has needed the support of other nations. When the colonies fought the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin went to Europe to get support against England. France, England's trade and military rival, secretly supplied weapons and cash to the American war effort and eventually agreed to a formal open alliance with the new nation. America's first foreign policy effort was a success.
Isolationism:
After the Constitution was put into place, three significant factors shaped America's goals in foreign policy:
1- Washington's Farewell Address
President George Washington advised the new nation to avoid involvement in European political and military issues that did not directly involve it. He knew America had plenty of its own problems to solve. Generally, US foreign policy followed this approach for about 150 years.
2- The Monroe Doctrine
In 1823, President James Monroe proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine. He warned European nations not to interfere in the affairs of Central and South American countries. He said:
3- Fear of Foreigners
In the 1840s and 1850s, American policy allowed people to immigrate to the United States to help the nation grow, but the feelings of many Americans caused foreign policy to change and become more isolationist.
Example: By 1860, more than 1.5 million Irish people had come to the United States. The new immigrants competed with native-born citizens for jobs and places to live. Many Americans resented their arrival and argued that foreigners, especially the Irish and later the Chinese, should be kept out of the country.
Teddy Roosevelt and the American Empire
President Theodore Roosevelt wanted America to become more involved in world affairs. As a young man, he had led a cavalry unit, known as the Rough Riders, against the Spanish and in Cuba. Victory in the Spanish American War (1898) gained independence for Cuba and the Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and the Philippines for the United States.
As President, Roosevelt argued for the building of the Panama Canal to improve the transportation of American goods and troops between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
His "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine proclaimed that the United States had the right to police the Caribbean. Roosevelt sent the US Navy on a world tour to show off American military power. He also won the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the end of a war between Russia and Japan.
The World Wars
Have you ever tried to stay out of an argument that didn't involve you? The military and political conflicts in Europe that led to World War 1 and World War 2 did not directly involve the United States. But, when American Trade and shipping with its European trading partners were disrupted during World War 1, United States lawmakers decided that America had to end its isolationist foreign policy and enter the war. When World War 1 ended, America returned to isolationism- until a direct attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in 1941 brought us into World War 2.
American isolationism ended for good after World War 2 when the United States, now a major world power, changed its foreign policy, began an active leadership role and:
The Cold War
The Cold War was the long period of tension between the communist Soviet Union and the United States following World War 2. The two nations never went to war against each other, but the world lived under the fear that they would wage a nuclear war. During this time, the United States adopted a foreign policy of containment aimed at stopping communism from spreading into more countries.
Cold War Confrontations
One aspect of the Cold War was a series of confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union. In some cases, US policy led to military involvement, but more often it did not:
Ben Franklin and the French:
From the very first days of our nation, the country has needed the support of other nations. When the colonies fought the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin went to Europe to get support against England. France, England's trade and military rival, secretly supplied weapons and cash to the American war effort and eventually agreed to a formal open alliance with the new nation. America's first foreign policy effort was a success.
Isolationism:
After the Constitution was put into place, three significant factors shaped America's goals in foreign policy:
1- Washington's Farewell Address
President George Washington advised the new nation to avoid involvement in European political and military issues that did not directly involve it. He knew America had plenty of its own problems to solve. Generally, US foreign policy followed this approach for about 150 years.
2- The Monroe Doctrine
In 1823, President James Monroe proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine. He warned European nations not to interfere in the affairs of Central and South American countries. He said:
- America considered anything that happened anywhere in the Western Hemisphere to be connected with its own national interests.
- The United States was prepared to use military force to stop European interference.
- In return, America would continue to stay out of European affairs.
3- Fear of Foreigners
In the 1840s and 1850s, American policy allowed people to immigrate to the United States to help the nation grow, but the feelings of many Americans caused foreign policy to change and become more isolationist.
Example: By 1860, more than 1.5 million Irish people had come to the United States. The new immigrants competed with native-born citizens for jobs and places to live. Many Americans resented their arrival and argued that foreigners, especially the Irish and later the Chinese, should be kept out of the country.
Teddy Roosevelt and the American Empire
President Theodore Roosevelt wanted America to become more involved in world affairs. As a young man, he had led a cavalry unit, known as the Rough Riders, against the Spanish and in Cuba. Victory in the Spanish American War (1898) gained independence for Cuba and the Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico and the Philippines for the United States.
As President, Roosevelt argued for the building of the Panama Canal to improve the transportation of American goods and troops between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
His "Roosevelt Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine proclaimed that the United States had the right to police the Caribbean. Roosevelt sent the US Navy on a world tour to show off American military power. He also won the Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating the end of a war between Russia and Japan.
The World Wars
Have you ever tried to stay out of an argument that didn't involve you? The military and political conflicts in Europe that led to World War 1 and World War 2 did not directly involve the United States. But, when American Trade and shipping with its European trading partners were disrupted during World War 1, United States lawmakers decided that America had to end its isolationist foreign policy and enter the war. When World War 1 ended, America returned to isolationism- until a direct attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in 1941 brought us into World War 2.
American isolationism ended for good after World War 2 when the United States, now a major world power, changed its foreign policy, began an active leadership role and:
- Helped set up the United Nations in 1945 to maintain world peace.
- Joined in founding the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to protect the western nations against the aggressive expansionist activities of the Soviet Union and spend of communism.
The Cold War
The Cold War was the long period of tension between the communist Soviet Union and the United States following World War 2. The two nations never went to war against each other, but the world lived under the fear that they would wage a nuclear war. During this time, the United States adopted a foreign policy of containment aimed at stopping communism from spreading into more countries.
Cold War Confrontations
One aspect of the Cold War was a series of confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union. In some cases, US policy led to military involvement, but more often it did not:
- Greece- America provided aid to prevent Greece's post war government from being overthrown by communists.
- Turkey- The United States gave aid and support to a struggling government.
- The Marshall Plan- The United States provided billions of dollars to help Europe rebuild after World War 2.
- Berlin Airlift- The Communist Soviet Union tried to force the United States to abandon Western Berlin in 1948 by closing roads and railroads into the city. America responded with an airlift of supplies to keep the city going, Thirteen months later the blockade ended.
- Korea- When communist North Korea invaded noncommunist South Korea, the United Nations, led by the United States defended South Korea. the conflict lasted from 1950-1953, and south Korea remained independent.
- Vietnam- After World War 2, North Vietnam was under communist control, while South Vietnam was supported by democratic countries. As North Vietnam became more aggressive, the United States became more involved in the conflict. After years of fighting in which the American public increasingly protested US involvement, America left the conflict, and the country was unified under a communist government.
- Arms Race- Both the United States and the Soviet Union built stockpiles of nuclear weapons during the Cold War in order to deter an attack by the other. This arms race threatened world peace and cost both sides billions of dollars. In a sense the arms race led to the downfall of the Soviet Union because its economy was not strong enough to pay for the weapons and also provide the comforts of life in an industrial society. The arms race ended with the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
17.5- THE UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations (UN) played a role in the Cold War and continues to play a large international role today. The UN was created in 1945 after World War 2, with full United States support, to help achieve foreign policy goals of the United States and many other nations.
Creation:
The UN Charter spells out four goals:
UN Structure:
To accomplish its goals, the UN has five main organizations:
Peacekeeping Work:
The UN, using troops and observers, has helped to stop or prevent conflicts between hostile groups or nations. Neutral UN peacekeepers have acted as observers, policed ceasefires and troop withdrawals, and protected assistance organizations, such as the Red cross, in such trouble spots as Kosovo, East Timor, and Iraq.
Humanitarian Work:
Besides peacekeeping, the UN runs more than 10 different programs and funds, providing humanitarian aid, protecting human rights, and helping developing nations.
Example: UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund, helps children and mothers in developing countries.
Through its membership in the UN, the United States seeks its foreign policy goals and works cooperatively with other nations to promote peace and human rights in the world.
The UN Charter spells out four goals:
- To maintain international peace and security.
- To develop friendly relations among nations
- To cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights.
- To coordinate the actions of the member nations in securing peace.
UN Structure:
To accomplish its goals, the UN has five main organizations:
- The General Assembly is a forum of the 193 nations in the UN. Every member nation has a seat and a vote. The General Assembly makes recommendations to the Security Council for action.
- Security Council includes 15 members, 5 of which are permanent (United States, Brittan, France, Russia, China) This group responds to international conflicts and crises. It coordinates negotiations between disputing nations. provides peacekeeping forces, and imposes sanctions- nonviolent penalties that prevent the country from doing something such as selling oil.
- The Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members of the General Assembly who carry out and monitor many UN programs.
- International Court Justice. This 15 member international court hears cases submitted to it for advice and judgement. UN members agree to accept its decisions.
- Secretariat Like the United States' federal bureaucracy, it carries out the policies of the Assembly and Council as directly by the Secretary General, the chief spokesman for the UN.
- The Trusteeship Council, which helped trust territories become self-governing nations, suspended operations in 1994.
Peacekeeping Work:
The UN, using troops and observers, has helped to stop or prevent conflicts between hostile groups or nations. Neutral UN peacekeepers have acted as observers, policed ceasefires and troop withdrawals, and protected assistance organizations, such as the Red cross, in such trouble spots as Kosovo, East Timor, and Iraq.
Humanitarian Work:
Besides peacekeeping, the UN runs more than 10 different programs and funds, providing humanitarian aid, protecting human rights, and helping developing nations.
Example: UNICEF, the United Nations Children's Fund, helps children and mothers in developing countries.
Through its membership in the UN, the United States seeks its foreign policy goals and works cooperatively with other nations to promote peace and human rights in the world.
17.6- OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
US Foreign policy requires relationships with many nations, some of which are secured by treaties, alliances, and international agencies other than the UN. Some of the most important are:
- The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Today, NATO has 19 members and provides peacekeeping and crisis support.
- Organization of American States (OAS) Originally set up in 1948 to safeguard member nations against communism, the OAS is now used by the United States for economic partnerships and to fight drug trafficking.
- World Bank In 2001, the Bank loaned more than $17 billion (expressed in US dollars) to poor countries that needed money for health care, education, and other programs. The money is provided to the Bank by donations from wealthier countries such as the United States.
- World Trade Organization (WTO) Since 1995, the WTO has helped promote trade among nations by, for example helping settle tariff disputes.