CHAPTER 12- PUBLIC OPINION AND INTEREST GROUPS
12.1- PROPAGANDA AND PUBLIC OPINION
You have your own personal opinion about ideas, things, and people around you. Public opinion refers to the feelings, thoughts and positions that many Americans have on political or social issues, such as:
Factors Influencing Public Opinion:
Several factors shape what you and other citizens thing and believe. These factors may include:
Propaganda:
Frequently, the government and other institutions and individuals try to get people to believe certain ideas. Propaganda- the communication of information to spread certain ideas, beliefs, or practices and shape public opinion- is one way to do this. Propaganda can be deceptive or dishonest. This form of communication and opinion making often disregards truth and is misleading.
Common Propaganda Techniques:
Some propaganda techniques are intended to interfere with your ability to listen closely and think things through clearly:
- Should college athletes get paid?
- Is the President doing a good job?
- Should people be able to copy music from the Internet for free?
Factors Influencing Public Opinion:
Several factors shape what you and other citizens thing and believe. These factors may include:
- Your Family: Young children learn the values and opinions of their families, even when those values are not directly taught. They hear adult discussions about news items, people, and ideas.
- The Schools: One of the tasks of schools is enculturation- passing on the beliefs and values of the culture.
- Example: Schools often have written or understood codes of conduct that ask students to show respect toward other people. Respecting other people is a cultural values that schools encourage.
- Your Religion or Non-Religious beliefs: The values of a person's church, religious beliefs, or non-religious beliefs often influence her or his opinions.
- Molders of Public Opinion: Many people are influenced by celebrities, sports figures, and internet influencers.
- Mass Media: What people hear on radio, see on television, or read about in newspapers, magazines, or in social media influences their opinions.
Propaganda:
Frequently, the government and other institutions and individuals try to get people to believe certain ideas. Propaganda- the communication of information to spread certain ideas, beliefs, or practices and shape public opinion- is one way to do this. Propaganda can be deceptive or dishonest. This form of communication and opinion making often disregards truth and is misleading.
Common Propaganda Techniques:
Some propaganda techniques are intended to interfere with your ability to listen closely and think things through clearly:
12.2- SHAPING PUBLIC OPINION
Of course, shaping of opinion is not always unfair or dishonest. Public opinion helps check government power. James Madison once said, "Public opinion sets bounds to every government and is the real sovereign in every free one."
Public officials listen to public opinion, but they shape it, too. Public opinion is also shaped by the mass media and special interest groups.
Public Officials:
Public opinion is shaped by government officials such as:
Mass Media:
Mass media- television, newspapers, radios, magazines, books, film, audiotapes, CDs, DVDs, Podcasts, the Internet, and Social Media- have power to shape public opinion.
Public officials listen to public opinion, but they shape it, too. Public opinion is also shaped by the mass media and special interest groups.
Public Officials:
Public opinion is shaped by government officials such as:
- Legislators: Elected representatives attempt to shape public opinion so voters will support them and their policies.
- Example: Before an important vote is taken in Congress, a Senator may send out a mailing to citizens to explain why passage of the bill will (or won't) be a good thing for them. He or she may also point out why opponents' arguments are wrong or weak.
- The Executive: Modern presidents and governors and their advisors can use the reach of mass media- media that reaches large numbers of people- to explain their ideas or ask the public support on issues. The voter support they gather this way, sometimes called grassroots support, can influence legislators. Presidents with high approval ratings- the measure of how much public support they have- can get their (and their party's) policies and ideas supported more easily by lawmakers. An unpopular president who lacks broad public support can drive voters away from a party.
Mass Media:
Mass media- television, newspapers, radios, magazines, books, film, audiotapes, CDs, DVDs, Podcasts, the Internet, and Social Media- have power to shape public opinion.
- Newspapers or TV stations can choose to broadcast or publish information that supports a politician or issue- or ignore it.
- Media and media personalities frequently criticize politicians and government policy.
- Media outlets decide on the issues they choose to present and the way they present them.
- The more time the media spends on an issue the more important it seems to the public.
- Social media- Despite 64% of Americans seeing Social Media as divisive and causing conflict in the United States, a single issue can flare up due to social media outlets such as Twitter, Facebook, Snapchat, etc at a much faster rate than through other outlets making an issue seem much more urgent or extreme than it might be.
Media Conglomerates
During the 19th and much of the 20th centuries, America had many different and separate media outlets- magazines, news papers, and later, radio and TV stations. More recently the Internet and Social Media has become a major outlet for both official and unofficial media. many different people and companies owned and operated these media businesses. The media provided many different viewpoints, so citizens got fairly balanced views of government and other news. In the past 20 years, smaller media companies have been bought by larger ones, forming media conglomerates- large business corporations made up of a number of different companies that operate in widely diversified fields. These media giants own many radio and TV stations, newspapers, and even satellites. Example: the 2001 merger of AOL-Time Warner combined more than 75 media businesses, including TV networks and cable TV operations, but and magazine publications, recording companies, and Internet Services, with combined sales of $165 billion. Some people fear that conglomerates with control over what news and opinions are offered in the media have too much influence on public opinion. |
Media Spin
Governments, large businesses, and many other institutions today have public relations advisors who help them manage communications in the media. Some of these specialists create spin- ways of talking about the organization's role in an issue or event that makes it the "good guys." The catchy phrases that make up "sound bites" can also limit the public's understanding of complex issues.
Special Interest Groups:
Special Interest Groups are public or private groups that try to influence public opinion and, ultimately, the government in support of their own members interest. Special interest groups range from small, informal groups that gather to protest local political decisions at a town meeting to large organized associations, such as the American College of Surgeons or the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. The larger the group, the more influence it can usually exert on the public and on lawmakers.
Governments, large businesses, and many other institutions today have public relations advisors who help them manage communications in the media. Some of these specialists create spin- ways of talking about the organization's role in an issue or event that makes it the "good guys." The catchy phrases that make up "sound bites" can also limit the public's understanding of complex issues.
Special Interest Groups:
Special Interest Groups are public or private groups that try to influence public opinion and, ultimately, the government in support of their own members interest. Special interest groups range from small, informal groups that gather to protest local political decisions at a town meeting to large organized associations, such as the American College of Surgeons or the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. The larger the group, the more influence it can usually exert on the public and on lawmakers.
12.3- MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION
Public opinion polls- surveys of the views of a sample of the population- have increased in number and importance in the last several decades. Polls can be taken to determine:
Polls and Election Results
During the 2020 presidential election campaign, polls by groups like CNN and Gallop measured public opinions according to:
Opinion Polls
The results of a poll depend on many factors.
- How strongly people feel about an issue.
- What people really want and need.
- How public opinion is changing.
- How much the public is divided or unified in their feelings about an issue.
- Candidates and politicians use polls to discover how well the public accepts them.
- News organizations use polls to report on campaigns and the performance of public officials.
- Organizations interested in influencing public policy or legislation use polls to inform themselves and to persuade others.
Polls and Election Results
During the 2020 presidential election campaign, polls by groups like CNN and Gallop measured public opinions according to:
- Region of the country
- State
- Eligible voters
- Registered voters
- Likely voters
- Ethnic and racial groups
Opinion Polls
The results of a poll depend on many factors.
- Who conducts the poll? If a candidate's supporters take a poll, they may influence the answers they get. The results of the polls taken by neutral organizations are much more likely to be accurate.
- What is the sample size? The number of people polled must be large enough to represent the general population.
- Who is polled? Voters of all races, religions, age groups, interests, and economic statuses must be included for a poll to be representative of the real voting population.
- Example: Results of a poll depend on which "voters" are surveyed. There are many more people who care eligible to vote than people who do vote. In some elections, only 30-40 percent of eligible votes actually vote. To be accurate in predicting winning candidates, poll results must reflect the views of people who actually vote.
- Other factors: How were the questions asked? Are the questions phrased clearly? Must people choose between a few alternatives or can they answer in their own words? How was the poll conducted? Was it in person or by mail? Were people stopped while rushing to work, or did they have time to think about their answers?
12.4- INTEREST GROUPS
Although one person can certainly make a difference by voting, public officials are more likely to pay attention when many people express the same opinion. Interest groups are organizations whose members share common concerns and who try to influence others to agree with them.
Why Interest Groups Form:
Interest groups aim to bring their concerns to the attention of the public and legislators and to influence public policy. Another word used to describe special interest groups is a lobby- a group that tries to get legislators to vote a certain way.
Early Special Interest Groups:
Because America was founded on democratic principles, groups of people with special interests have always had the power to influence government. James Madison discussed factions- groups of citizens with conflicting interests- in the Federalist Papers. The First Amendment secured the rights of citizens to assemble, to speak freely, to publish their ideas, and to petition the government.
Interest groups have used these rights:
Why Interest Groups Form:
Interest groups aim to bring their concerns to the attention of the public and legislators and to influence public policy. Another word used to describe special interest groups is a lobby- a group that tries to get legislators to vote a certain way.
Early Special Interest Groups:
Because America was founded on democratic principles, groups of people with special interests have always had the power to influence government. James Madison discussed factions- groups of citizens with conflicting interests- in the Federalist Papers. The First Amendment secured the rights of citizens to assemble, to speak freely, to publish their ideas, and to petition the government.
Interest groups have used these rights:
- Suffragists lobbied for women's right to vote.
- Prohibitionists go constitutional amendment passed that banned alcohol. (It was later repealed by the 21st amendment)
- Labor unions secured laws dealing with hours and working conditions.
How Interest Groups Work
Whether large or small, interest groups work to influence government and public opinion.
Methods and Actions
Most interest groups use four similar methods to accomplish their goals. They pursue their objectives by:
Lobbyists
Lobbyists are paid or unpaid professionals used by interest groups to try to influence the way legislators vote. The word lobbyist comes from people who wait in the lobbies of government buildings to talk to legislatures as they go to and from work. Successful lobbyists:
Grassroots Campaigns
Special interest groups sometimes launch grassroots campaigns, going directly to the public to gain support for their issues by:
Political Action Committees
Political Action Committees (PACs) are groups that raise money and distribute campaign funds to candidates for political office. PACs help elect candidates who will support their issues. Well financed PACs bring their views to the public and politicians by:
Whether large or small, interest groups work to influence government and public opinion.
Methods and Actions
Most interest groups use four similar methods to accomplish their goals. They pursue their objectives by:
- Forming: Special interest groups form when a number of people with common concerns agree to work together.
- Small Groups- Formed around community issues, such as a school closing or the plans for a new ball park, often begin informally as neighbors come to recognize they share a viewpoint and want to work together for results they prefer.
- Large Groups- that try to influence national policy are formed when people find they have a common interest, such as the environmentalists who formed the Sierra Club, or are members of a professional organization, such as the Medical Association. Large groups often conduct recruiting campaigns to gain members.
- Organizing: Small groups tend to be manned by volunteers and their organization is loose. A large group will have a complex organization. It will adopt by-laws to guide its operation. Officers will be elected. Membership dues may be charged. The group may hire professionals to run the day-today operation of the organization, recruiting members and raising funds.
- Operating: The group decides how to promote it's ideas either by individual efforts or whole-group actions.
- Individual actions may include:
- Writing letters to newspapers
- Participating in public demonstrations for or against some action
- Letter-writing campaigns to political officials
- Fundraising activities
- Group actions may include:
- Hiring Lobbyists
- Starting "Grassroots campaigns."
- Forming Political Action Committees (PACs).
- Individual actions may include:
- Influencing and Electing: Special interest groups ultimately want to get candidates elected who support the group's position. In this way, they can influence what laws are passed or defeated.
Lobbyists
Lobbyists are paid or unpaid professionals used by interest groups to try to influence the way legislators vote. The word lobbyist comes from people who wait in the lobbies of government buildings to talk to legislatures as they go to and from work. Successful lobbyists:
- Know a lot about the political process and people they are lobbying
- Are very familiar with the goals of the group they represent
- Are truthful in their dealings
- Show legislators how supporting the group's position can benefit them.
- Members of congressional committees that consider legislation.
- Administrative agencies that write or enforce regulations
- Officials of executive departments
- Example: The huge Chicago welfare agency that places and oversees neglected, abandoned, and abused children in foster care hires lobbyists to help the state legislators of Illinois understand the situations it faces. When the state budget is being discussed, these lobbyists help protect the funds earmarked for the agency's operation.
Grassroots Campaigns
Special interest groups sometimes launch grassroots campaigns, going directly to the public to gain support for their issues by:
- Urging their member sand other citizens to write to their representatives or senators about issues coming up for a vote.
- Sending informational mailings to non-members, explaining the issues from the group's point of view.
Political Action Committees
Political Action Committees (PACs) are groups that raise money and distribute campaign funds to candidates for political office. PACs help elect candidates who will support their issues. Well financed PACs bring their views to the public and politicians by:
- Testifying at public hearings
- Providing officials with research information
- Trying to influence the media to preset the PAC's point of view.
- Suggesting and supporting legislation
- Hiring lobbyists
- Endorsing candidates
- Working on election campaigns
12.5- INTEREST GROUPS AND PUBLIC POLICY
Despite the fears of some of America's founders, as well as some people today, interest groups serve the public good.
Contributions of Interest Groups
Interest groups help make governments work more effectively in four broad ways:
Controlling Interest Groups
Critics fear that large interest groups:
Federal Lobbyists
Federal Lobbyists must register with the Clerk of the House of Representatives and the Secretary of the Senate, revealing what groups they represent, and their salary and expenses. The courts have ruled that limits on lobbying are constitutional. Congress has restricted the value of gifts that lobbyists can give government officials.
Political Action Committees
Many citizens are concerned about the influence of PACs.
Some special interest groups have formed to fight the power of PACs.
Example: Common Cause is a 200,000 member group founded in 1970 that opposes "big money special interests." It believes that PACs should be prohibited altogether because they give well financed interests groups a unfair advantage.
Contributions of Interest Groups
Interest groups help make governments work more effectively in four broad ways:
- They Make Issues Known: Busy legislators or the public may be unfamiliar with all of the issues unless those issues are pointed out to them. Interest group activity, especially when it receives national coverage, increases the chances that legislators and citizens will pay attention.
- They Help Group Members: Special interest groups share information among their members to strengthen the group and improve the economics and social well-being of the members.
- Example: The Mexican-American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) represents a group that has historically faced legal discrimination. The group protects its members' rights and educational opportunities. This leads to better lives and jobs for Mexican Americans.
- They Support Candidates: Special interest groups support political candidates who favor their views. Interest groups contribute money to candidates' election campaigns. They also encourage members and other people to vote for candidates who will support the group's issues.
- They Use the Courts: If lawmakers do not respond to their concerns, special interest groups can ask the courts for help by:
- Filing suit against the government, individuals, or other groups.
- Supporting a defendant by paying for his attorneys.
- Testifying or acting as an amicus curia- A friend of the court. These people present information so the court is better informed about the technicalities of a case.
- Example: The NAACP played a major role in the civil rights cases that eventually led to civil rights legislation in the 1960s and 1970s.
Controlling Interest Groups
Critics fear that large interest groups:
- Have too much wealth, power, and political influence.
- Can corrupt individual politicians
- Improperly impact voter choice and the democratic political process.
- Candidates through hard money donations. These are direct donations to individual politicians' election campaigns. There are limits on the amount of a single person or group can give to an individual candidate.
- Parties or Issues through soft money donations. These contributions are called "soft" because they are not given directly to any candidate. Instead, the money is given to a political party, either nationally, at the state level, or locally. These donations may be much greater than the amount an individual may give to a single candidate.
Federal Lobbyists
Federal Lobbyists must register with the Clerk of the House of Representatives and the Secretary of the Senate, revealing what groups they represent, and their salary and expenses. The courts have ruled that limits on lobbying are constitutional. Congress has restricted the value of gifts that lobbyists can give government officials.
Political Action Committees
Many citizens are concerned about the influence of PACs.
- Sheer cost prevents many talented people for running for office. Candidates supported by PACs can spend larger sums of money on their campaigns.
- Reformers have proposed limits on the amount of money an individual PAC can contribute to a candidate or the total amount the candidate can accept from all PACs.
Some special interest groups have formed to fight the power of PACs.
Example: Common Cause is a 200,000 member group founded in 1970 that opposes "big money special interests." It believes that PACs should be prohibited altogether because they give well financed interests groups a unfair advantage.