Chapter 1- Age of Exploration and Colonization
1A- Routes of Famous European Explorers
Beginning in the late 1400s, various European nations began sponsoring voyages across the oceans. This period of time in European history is known as the Age of Exploration or Age of Discovery. However, the Age of Encounter might be a better term for it, as the lands Europeans reached were already settled.
Five European nations were the dominant sponsors of these voyages in search of new trade routes, merchant opportunities, and - ultimately - lands to conquer. These were Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands.
Two explorers from Portugal: Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama were appointed by King John II to find a new trade route to Asia.
In 1488, Dias became the first European explorer to round the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa. His path took him along Africa's west coast and paved the way for his fellow Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama.
Vasco da Gama followed in Dias’ footsteps and chartered an exploratory trip past the Cape of Good Hope. Making various stops along the way, including in what is present day Mozambique and Kenya, da Gama and his men finally arrived in Calicut, India. He was thus successful in providing a sea route from Western Europe to Asia.
Exploring on behalf of Spain, were Christopher Columbus, Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, and Ferdinand Magellan, although not all of these gentlemen were Spanish born.
Columbus was of Italian origin, yet he was hired by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain to explore for them. In his attempts to reach Asia, he became the first European to reach the Caribbean in 1492.
In the Bahamas, Columbus and his crew became the first Europeans to encounter indigenous Americans. The Lucayan people, a branch of the Taínos who inhabited most of the Caribbean, lived there. Shortly after contact, Columbus kidnapped and enslaved Lucayans.
Columbus eventually made four voyages across the Atlantic and claimed land for the Spanish throne. Fighting, enslavement, and disease led to the near eradication of Lucayan people from the Bahamas by 1520.
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado was as much a conquistador as he was an explorer. He was tempted by the myth that he could find the famed “Seven Cities of Gold” in the New World. He became the first European to see the Grand Canyon and the American Southwest, eventually claiming land north of Mexico for Spain.
Ferdinand Magellan, originally of Portugal, was commissioned by Spain to forge a route to the East Indies, which is today known as Southeast Asia. Although Magellan died during his voyage in the Philippines in 1521, his ship and crew made the first circumnavigation of Earth, meaning a complete trip around the world.
Sir Frances Drake and John Cabot were explorers sailing for England. John Cabot, who was originally from Italy, was sent by England to find a route to Asia. Instead, he explored the coast of Newfoundland, Canada, in 1497. Cabot would claim land for England during his three voyages.
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Drake was tasked by Queen Elizabeth I to sail as a privateer and steal from Spanish ships and ports. From 1577 to 1580, he made his own circumnavigation of the globe, completing what Magellan could not do alive.
Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, sailed up the St. Lawrence River in the eastern part of Canada to look for a northwest passage. He is remembered for having claimed Canada for France and giving it its name.
Giovanni da Verrazano, originally from Italy, was tasked by France with the exploration of the East Coast of North America, up which he travelled from what is modern-day Florida to New Brunswick in Canada in 1524.
Henry Hudson was an English explorer sailing for the Dutch East India Company when he reached modern-day New York and the Hudson River looking for a Northwest Passage to Asia. He laid the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region.
Another explorer sailing for the Netherlands was Abel Tasman. Tasman became the first European to reach New Zealand, Tasmania, and Fiji in 1642. He made a second voyage exploring Australia's northern coast in 1644.
1b- Improvements in Navigation
As various European countries race to join in on global exploration voyages, it was clear that improvements in navigation would be needed. This extended to the speed of ships, materials used in ship building, and the tools that explorers could use for more accurate navigation. The earliest explorers had made glaring mistakes in the past, having arrived in one territory thinking it was another, and so on. These inventions thus allowed for more precise exploration of new lands, leading to cultural diffusion and a phenomenon later known as the “Columbian Exchange”.
Three tools are of particular importance to this time period: lateen sails, the astrolabe, and the magnetic compass. Lateen sails were triangular sails which allowed ships to sail directly into the wind, versus the formerly used square sails that did not allow ships to sail into the wind. Sailors had to wait out harsh winds because their square sails could not take them through the force, yet with the lateen sails - which featured a 45° angle - could cut through the winds. Ships also subsequently went faster as a result.
Although lateen sails were invented many centuries before the Age of Exploration, it was not until this time that ship builders began to use them on larger caravel ships that could cross long distances.
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The second invention of note was the astrolabe, which looked like a compass, but was actually used to pair astrology with navigation. This device allowed sailors to measure the angles of the sun so that they could know their latitude, meaning their position north or south of the Earth’s equator. The astrolabe could also be used to tell time by utilizing the position of the sun in the sky. Early wooden astrolabes were invented in Ancient Greece. Astrolabes were further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim astronomers introduced angular scales to the design, adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon. In the Middle Ages, metal astrolabes were created. These avoided the warping that large wooden ones were prone to, allowing the construction of larger and more accurate instruments.
Finally, the magnetic compass was an improvement upon the standard compass and is more closely associated with the compasses that are in use today. The magnetic compass relies on the magnetic pull from the magnetic north pole, and was a tool that the explorers acquired from China. Simply put, it was a vital invention that was crucial for sailors to know in which direction they were going, which made for a more efficient and safer voyage.
1c- The Columbian Exchange
After Christopher Columbus returned from his first voyage to the Caribbean in 1493, a phenomenon known as the Columbian Exchange would soon begin.
The Columbian Exchange was the exchanging of goods, ideas, and resources between the Old World and the New World in the decades following Columbus’s expedition.
The Old and New Worlds referred to the hemispheres of the globe, with the "Old" being the Eastern Hemisphere (present-day Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the "New" being the Western Hemisphere (the Americas). This period of exchange was most notable in the 1500s and 1600s.
The impact it had on the two hemispheres was both positive and negative. People were introduced to new foods, ways of life, and different elements of culture. However, the Columbian Exchange also exposed people to diseases that their bodies had never encountered and therefore could not fight off.
In terms of animals, the Old World contributed livestock such as cows, sheep, pigs, and horses. These animals thrived on the vast, grassy plains of North America, and introduced Native Americans to new protein sources through the animal meat. Additionally, they were able to use animal hides for clothing and shelter. Horses, in particular, proved exceptionally useful to the Native Americans for hunting and travel. From the New World and Western Hemisphere came turkeys and llamas.
By way of crops, the Old World introduced the Western Hemisphere to bananas, grapes, oranges, peaches, grains, and olives. They also contributed luxuries such as honey, sugar, and coffee.
The New World introduced the Eastern Hemisphere to vanilla, tobacco, beans, cacao (which can be harvested to make chocolate), pumpkins, corn, tomatoes, potatoes, pepper, avocados, and peanuts. Corn has been of notable importance, as it is a crop that is very resistant to drought, making it easy to grow in the arid climates throughout Africa.
An unfortunate component of this worldwide exchange was indeed the spreading of new germs and diseases from the Old World to the New World. From the Eastern Hemisphere, explorers brought illnesses such as smallpox and malaria. Native Americans who were living in the Western Hemisphere had never been exposed to these diseases, and thus their bodies had built up no immunities to them. Consequently, millions of native peoples perished.
1d- The Triangle of Trade
As Europeans conquered and formed colonies in the Caribbean and North America, they became reliant upon captured and enslaved Africans to work their sugar, cotton, and tobacco plantations. Indigenous Americans were enslaved also, but were dying by the millions from smallpox and other diseases brought by Europeans. Enslaved Africans, brought to the Americas along the brutal middle passage, were forced to be the new labor force.
This created a trade network across the continents that became known as the Triangle of Trade. It connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas and saw goods, people, and cultural elements move between the three regions from the 1500s into the 19th century.
Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and British ships would arrive in West African ports with manufactured goods for sale. These included guns, ammunition, rum, textiles, and other goods. This cargo would then be sold or traded for enslaved people. African kingdoms and merchants would capture men, women, and children from rival tribes and offer them up for sale.
These enslaved people then forced to endure a brutal two to three month journey to the Americas on what is now known as the Middle Passage. Many died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Others rebelled and were killed or thrown overboard.
Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then cleaned, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage to Europe.
These export goods included sugar, molasses, tobacco, cotton, furs, and other raw materials. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle and the cycle continued.
Each continent was undeniably impacted by this triangular trade network. Millions of Africans were captured and sent across the world. To defend themselves against enslavers, African kingdoms purchased European firearms, which they could only pay for with other enslaved people. This sparked wars and fighting across West Africa.
In America, the impact of this trade relationship was paid by the Native Americans, as diseases spread throughout their tribes. The influx of foreign people brought bacteria and germs that the Native Americans’ bodies could not fight off.
A plantation economy developed in America as a result of the institution of slavery. Mass production of cash crops became the basis for the entire economy in America's southern colonies.
A strict social hierarchy also went into effect, especially in Latin America. The encomienda system developed in Spanish colonies in which indigenous people were forced to work and pay tribute to the conquering Europeans. This pitted races and groups against one another and created a social hierarchy that lasted centuries.
The Triangle of Trade's impact on Europe was an influx of wealth and new resources. Europeans also saw a diffusion of their culture and people across the globe.
1e- The Middle Passage and Slave Trade
During the period we know as the Age of Exploration, Europeans created trade routes which brought them immense wealth. This was due in part to the goods which were traded, but also to the development of a system which would wreak havoc on Africa: The Transatlantic Slave Trade.
The first country to have a documented influx of African slaves was Portugal, who began trading and subsequently kidnapping Africans not long after the trade relationships formed by Prince Henry the Navigator and others.
European explorers were able to coax African kings into kidnapping people from other kingdoms by promising them goods such as guns and rum. Once in Portugal, enslaved African men, women, and children were forced to endure grueling hours of labor.
This practice of slave trading expanded throughout Europe, and eventually into the Americas. Spain, Portugal, and France began sending captured Africans to their colonies in the Caribbean and South America in the early 1500s.
In 1619, a group of 19 captured Angolans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia aboard the White Lion, an English privateer ship. These would be the first enslaved Africans to set foot in America, launching a period of violence and oppression against African Americans lasting over 300 years.
The terror and violence did not begin once the captured Africans arrived in Europe or the Americas. It began in African ports where they were often branded and forced onto overcrowded ships. They were then taken on a 2-3 month voyage known as the Middle Passage.
The Middle Passage refers to the journey by sea from West Africa across the Atlantic. Africans were usually chained up and made to lie in rows either on the floor or in compartments of the ships. Though it is difficult to give an exact number, it is approximated that around 2 million Africans died as a result of the conditions they faced on the journey.
The Europeans aboard the ship, in addition to chaining them up, also made sure to separate individuals from similar tribes or areas of Africa. They did this to limit the opportunity for Africans to communicate with one another and thus plan a revolt aboard the ships.
For nearly four centuries, between 10 to 12 million Africans would be forcibly transported across the Atlantic for their labor. In the Americas, their labor was used to grow profitable crops such as sugar cane, cotton, and tobacco.
While slavery was outlawed in Portugal in 1761, the practice of owning slaves in North America would not be abolished completely until 1865.
1f- Spanish Conquistadors in the New World
n Spanish, the word “conquistador” translates to “conqueror”, a fitting title for the Spanish (and also Portuguese) explorers who attempted to explore and conquer much of the Caribbean, Central, and South America. The conquistadors’ mission was to conquer these lands in the name of their home countries.
A lasting motto of the conquistadors is: “For Gold! For God! For Glory!”. The reference to "gold" in the motto was for the riches that were present and subsequently taken from the Native empires. The mention of "God" represented the religious work their missionaries would attempt in converting indigenous people to Christianity. Lastly, "glory" represented the fame and the seeming immortality these men would achieve after conquering these territories.
Here are three well-known conquistadors who sought "gold, god, and glory" in the New World:
Juan Ponce de León was a Spanish-born conquistador who made it his mission to find riches, such as gold and the famed “fountain of youth”. He first came to the Americas with Christopher Columbus's second expedition in 1493. He later assisted in crushing a rebellion of native Taíno and become the first governor of Puerto Rico.
After losing his position, Ponce de León led in the first exploration of Florida. Legend has it that he heard rumors of a “fountain of youth”. The tale was that anyone who drank from or bathed in the fountain could have eternal youth. This is likely a myth but Ponce de León did make two voyages to Florida. He attempted to colonize Florida but was driven back by the indigenous Calusa people of south Florida. Ponce de León was wounded in the fight and later died from his wounds in Cuba.
Hernán Cortés, another 16th century explorer from Spain, had already made his way through Hispaniola and Cuba (where he held a number of important titles) before he descended upon Mexico.
After acquiring the help of a priest who spoke the indigenous Maya language, Cortés was able to navigate the territory, eventually claiming Mexico for Spain in March of 1519. The only thing that stood in his way, however, was the Aztec empire.
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After building alliances with various indigenous groups (among them, the Tlaxcalans), Cortés led a campaign to destroy the Aztecs. He was successfully in defeating the empire, and ushered in a full Spanish colonization of Mexico.
Francisco Pizarro of Spain got wind of the rumor that there were riches to be found in the Andes Mountains of Peru, located in South America. The powerful Inca Empire controlled the region. However, at the time they were in the middle of a civil war between those loyal to the emperor Atahualpa and forces led by his half-brother Huascar.
Pizarro used this to his advantage and led a surprise attack on Atahualpa after inviting him to a feast. Hundreds of Incas were killed and Pizarro took Atahualpa captive. Atahualpa offered 24 tons of gold and treasures as ransom for his release, which was accepted, but Pizarro still had him executed.
Pizarro was then able to conquer the Incan capital of Cusco. He installed Atahualpa's brother as a puppet ruler and founded the city of Lima, which is today the capital of Peru.
1g- Prince Henry the Navigator
Upon first look at his name, it would make sense to assume that Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal earned his name through voyages and exploration. That, however, is not the case, although many still ascribe the term “Navigator” to him in writings. He derived his name from the many voyages that he sponsored to the New World and beyond.
Henry was born in March of 1394 to King John I and Philippa of Lancaster in Porto, a city in Portugal. In 1420, Henry was made the leader of a religious group in Portugal known as the Order of Christ. With much of the money that came in to support this group, Henry was able to fund explorations that took place across the Atlantic sea and down the West Coast of Africa. Henry was attracted by the potential riches that he could find on the continent, specifically the amounts of gold and the enslaved people that he could acquire for Portugal, hoping to bring wealth to his country. He also wanted to build up the number of Christian allies he had, improve his knowledge of geography, and find a sea route to Asia.
Prince Henry is also remembered for two important contributions to the fate of Portuguese exploration: Around 1418, he opened the first school for oceanic navigation, where students could learn about map-making, scientific practices, astrology, and more skills that would aid them in their journey down the west coast of Africa. The second was his founding of the Transatlantic slave trade. Two of his captains, Antam Gonclaves and Nuno Tristao, had ventured to Cape Bianco in what is now Tunisia. The two men were the first Europeans to buy enslaved Africans several Africans and brought them back to Europe. It began with twelve kidnapped men and women the first year, and then many more in the following years as the slave trade grew in size, influence, and power. Henry was in power and oversaw these voyages actively until his death in 1460.
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1h- Effects of European Migration
The Age of Discovery brought not only exotic goods and trade routes to the Europeans, it also provided them places to which they could migrate. This, in turn, created new cultural and social patterns as they established colonies in both Africa and Asia, while also migrating to parts of the Americas.
During this time, the European explorers referred to Southeast Asia and India simply as the “East Indies”. Merchants, meaning individuals or groups who are associated with trade specifically with foreign countries, were the ones who were leading the force for colonization of the East Indies. They did this in hopes of growing their trading companies and to also bring home goods that could be distributed and sold. The East India Company, for instance, was an immensely influential trading company. Formed in England in 1600, it was created to protect British trade interests in the East Indies. So as not to be excluded from this trading opportunity, the Netherlands also founded their own trading company two years later, which they called the Dutch East India Company. Certain countries in Asia, however, did not appreciate the constant influx of traders and the disruption to their everyday lives. China, for instance, proposed a set of rules for the traders to follow in an attempt to isolate themselves from the trading companies. While the Dutch followed these regulations, the British did not, and therefore the English company suffered.
The continent of Africa experienced similar disruptions that led to tensions involving race and status. The European explorers, eager to find trade routes, did so along the coasts of the continent. After the explorers figured out that they could trade slaves instead of just goods, it opened an expansive market. The slave trade, however, lent itself to raids by Africans and Europeans, resulting in the kidnapping of many individuals to be sold into slavery. In addition to kidnapping and enslaving Africans, the Europeans traded gold, salt, and other resources, and in exchange, they passed on not only goods from their home countries, but germs and deadly diseases as well.
Finally, the presence of European explorers - specifically those from Spain and Portugal - wreaked havoc on the native populations of South America. Their migration resulted in the end of the Aztec and Incan Empires, and thus, a rigid system of class developed in Latin America, also known as a hierarchy. The explorers colonized these areas (meaning took control over them) and forced the conquered peoples to practice European cultural and social patterns, such as religion and language.
1i- Comparing Responses to European Exploration
As trade routes and relationships began to develop between Europe and Asia, the countries of China and Japan sought to curb the amount of influence that these European explorers had over their nations.
In China, the main ideology regarding foreign relations was one of isolationism, meaning they wanted to isolate their country and keep it from any entanglements with other countries. Chinese leadership did not see many benefits in forming relationships with foreign nations, and therefore wanted to limit outside influences. Similarly, Japan’s leadership also wanted to curb the amount of influence from other nations, and even communicated with China to learn from them the best way of going about this. Both had an interest in preserving their respective cultures.
As more and more countries began to show interest in Chinese goods, the country decided to tailor its foreign policy in a way they thought would be beneficial to everyone. China created foreign enclaves, or pockets of territories within their countries, that the European explorers could lease and conduct their trade. Macau, for instance, was one enclave located in Western China that was leased to the Portuguese for trade purposes. At a certain point, China would only allow trading to occur in three ports, but that would soon expand. China thus saw an increased European demand for their goods, such as tea, porcelains, and silks.
The Portuguese, after gaining Macau, also expanded their efforts into Japan, where they began to trade things like firearms. Japan had also adopted a policy of isolationism at this time, with the military shogun (leader) controlling the emperor, but they were not strong enough to completely limit Portuguese, and thus European, influence. Their country had been ravaged by a civil war in the 1400s, and they could not take the chance that another force would come in and threaten the peace that had been established in the wake of the conflict. They did nevertheless try to adhere to isolationism, going as far as creating a trading post off on an island off of Nagasaki for the Dutch East India Company, and for a while, that was the only location where Europe could trade with Japan. Japan’s goods therefore became highly coveted in the foreign markets.
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Despite their efforts to maintain isolation and preserve their cultural practices and identities, the Chinese and the Japanese were not as powerful to fight back against the Europeans.